The Thirty-Year Genocide
Page 1
The Thirty- Year Genocide
THE
THIRTY- YEAR
GENOCIDE
Turkey’s Destruction of
Its Christian Minorities,
1894–1924
benny morris & dror ze’evi
harvard university press
Cambridge, Mas sa chu setts, and London, England
2019
Copyright © 2019 by Benny Morris and Dror Ze’evi
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of Amer i ca
First printing
Jacket design: Tim Jones
Jacket credit: Photograph of Armenian woman kneeling beside dead child in field “within sight of help and safety at Aleppo,” courtesy of the Library of Congress.
9780674240087 (EPUB)
9780674240094 (MOBI)
9780674240070 (PDF)
The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows:
Names: Morris, Benny, 1948– author. | Ze’evi, Dror, 1953– author.
Title: The thirty- year genocide : Turkey’s destruction of its Christian
minorities, 1894–1924 / Benny Morris and Dror Ze’evi.
Description: Cambridge, Mas sa chu setts : Harvard University Press, 2019. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018028342 | ISBN 9780674916456 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Religious minorities— Turkey— History—19th century. |
Religious minorities— Turkey— History—20th century. |
Genocide— Turkey— Religious aspects— Chris tian ity. |
Genocide— Turkey— History—19th century. | Genocide— Turkey— History—20th
century. | Christians— Turkey— History—19th century. |
Christians— Turkey— History—20th century. |
Persecution— Turkey— History—19th century. |
Persecution— Turkey— History—20th century. | Armenian question. |
Kemalism.
Classification: LCC DR576 .M6725 2019 | DDC 364.15/10956109041— dc23
LC rec ord available at https:// lccn . loc . gov / 2018028342
For my grandchildren,
And for mine,
Eliya and Stavi,
Itamar and Roee
Ayala, Zohar, and Matan
Haleli, Eden, Nuri, and Kedem
Benny
Dror
Contents
Glossary
ix
Place
Names
xiii
Introduction
1
part i abdülhamid ii
1 Nationalist Awakenings in the Nineteenth- Century Ottoman Empire 15
2 The Massacres of 1894–1896
44
part ii the young turks
3 A More Turkish Empire
137
4 The Eastern River
171
5 The Western River, and Downstream
212
6 A Policy of Genocide
244
part iii mustafa kemal and the nationalists
7 Historical Background, 1918–1924
265
8 Turks and Armenians, 1919–1924
293
9 Turks and Greeks, 1919–1924
381
Conclusion
485
Abbreviations
509
Notes
511
Bibliography
623
Acknowl
edgments
639
Illustration
Credits
641
Index
645
Glossary
Words in Turkish are rendered in modern Romanized Turkish orthography.
In this system c is pronounced j in En glish; ç is pronounced ch; ğ is usually unvocalized and lengthens the preceding vowel; and ı (undotted) is pronounced as the vowel u in the word turn. When a non- Turkish version is commonly used, the Turkish version is given in parentheses.
aga (ağa) (Kurdish)
chieftain
amele taburları
labor
battalions
amira
an Armenian notable, in the ser vice of the
Ottoman
state
bashi bazouk (başıbozuk)
irregular soldier, sometimes brigand
cavass (kavas)
ceremonial guard at an embassy or
consulate
çete (cheteh)
brigand, guerrilla, gangs
chiftlik (çiftlik, jiftlik)
large farm, estate
Dashnak (Dashnaksutyun)
po liti cal party, federation, short for
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
or
ARF
dhimmi
legal system whereby non- Muslims are
protected by Muslim states in exchange
for undertaking certain obligations
dragoman (tercüman)
embassy translator (and often negotiator
on behalf of the embassy with the
authorities)
Emniyet / Emniyet- i Umumiye
Interior Ministry’s Public Security
Müdüriyeti Directorate
emvāl- ı metruke
abandoned property
eşkiya (eshkiya)
rebels, mutineers
esnaf
artisans, or guilds of merchants and
artisans
Y
Glossary
fatwa (fetva)
an opinion on a point of Islamic law given
by a recognized authority
ferik
lieutenant general (army rank)
firman (fırman) sultan’s
decree
giaour (gavur or kafir)
infidel, heathen (derogatory); in colloquial
speech also “infidel dog,” merciless, cruel
hafir, ghafir
protection tax paid by Armenian villa gers
to tribes in their vicinity
hamal porter,
stevedore
Hunchak, Hanchak
Clarion, or Bell; name of an Armenian
opposition
party
halal
permitted according to sharia law
hodja (hoca)
title for a teacher, Islamic leader
iltizam
tax farm, state lease of taxes
irâde
sultan’s command, declaration
İskan- ı Aşayir ve Muhacirin Müdüriyeti
Directorate for Settlement of Tribes and
Muhacirs, previously, “muhâcirin
komisyonu”
İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti
Committee of Union and Pro gress
(the Young Turk party)
kadi (cadi)
religious judge
kaymakam (kaimakam)
town or sub- district governor, acting
governor
kaza (caza)
sub- district
khan (han, kervanseray)
inn
komiteci (komiteji)
member of (usually Armenian)
revolutionary committee, or rebel group
konak government
house,
residence
masbata (mazbata)
rec ord of testimony, or official report
madrassa (medresseh, medrese)
Muslim religious school or seminary
millet
religious community / nation, often
referring to
Ottoman non- Muslim
communities
muavin aide,
assistant
mudir (müdür)
director, commissioner, administrator,
sometimes
commander
muezzin
a crier who calls Muslims to prayer
mufti (müftü)
Muslim cleric, often a state employee, and
issuer of fatwas
Glossary
YJ
muhacir (muhajir)
immigrant, used almost exclusively
in reference to Muslim refugees
mullah (mollah)
high- ranking kadi, priest
multazim (mültezim)
one leasing the right to collect taxes in a
certain
area
muşir (mushir)
general, marshal (army rank)
mutesarrif (mutasarrıf ) district
governor
mutesarriflik (mutasarrıflik) district
padishah sultan
raya (rayah, reaya)
non- Muslim subjects of the sultan, sheep
sanjak (sancak, liva)
district
sharia Muslim
law
softa Muslim
seminarian
tabur battalion
Tanzimat
reforms, usually referring to a series of
reforms undertaken by the Ottoman
state from 1839 to 1876
tekkeh (tekke)
dervish lodge, place of Sufi congregation
teşkilat organ
ization
Teşkilat- ı mahsusa
Special Organ ization
tezkereh (tezkere)
travel permit
Turan
the imagined ancient homeland of the
Turkic
peoples
ulema (ulama)
(council of ) Muslim theological experts;
Muslim priests or teachers
vali
provincial governor (governor- general)
vilayet province
zaptiyeh
police force, gendarmerie; also police
officer,
gendarme
Place Names
Many of the villages mentioned in this study no longer exist; the names of
many others have changed (usually from Greek or Armenian to Turkish). The
alphabet reform in the 1920s (from Arabic- Ottoman script to an adapted Latin
alphabet) affected the transliteration of place names. Wherever we could
locate the Turkish name we include it in parentheses. If the current name is
well known, we use that instead of an old transliteration.
Ottoman
Armenian, Arabic,
En glish common
name
Greek, Syriac, Latin,
name WWI
(simplified)
Turkish name
or Kurdish name
Variations
Ada Bazaar
Adapazarı
Adapazarı
Adana
Adana
Adana
Arm.: Atana
Adrianople
Edirne
Edirne
Grk.: Adrianopolis
Aidin
Aydın
Aydın
Aintab
Ayntab
Antep, Gaziantep
Arab.: ‘Ayntāb
Alania
Alanya
Alanya
Al- Bab, El- Bab
Al- Bab
Al- Bab
Arab.: Al- Bāb
Aleppo
Haleb
Alep
Arab.: Halab
Alep
Alexandretta
Iskenderun
Iskenderun
Grk.: Alexandretta
Amasia
Amasya
Amasya
Angora
Ankara
Ankara
Latin: Angora
Antalya, Attalia,
Antalya
Antalya
Grk.: Attaleia
Adalia
Antioch
Antakya
Antakya
Grk.: Antiocheia
Arapgir, Arapkir
Arapgir
Arapgir
Arab.: Arabgir
Bafra
Bafra
Bafra
Baffra
Baiburt
Bayburt
Grk.: Paipert
Batman
Batman
Batman
Bilijik, Bilejik
Bilecik
Bilecik
Birejik, Biregik
Birecik
Birecik
Grk.: Birtha
Arab.: Birha
(Continued)
YJW
Place Names
Ottoman
Armenian, Arabic,
En glish common
name
Greek, Syriac, Latin,
name WWI
(simplified)
Turkish name
or Kurdish name
Variations
Bitlis
Bitlis
Bitlis
Syr.: Bet Dlis
Arm.: Paghesh
Bodrum
Bodrum
Bodrum
Latin: Petronium
Bodroum, Boudrum
Bolu, Bolou
Bolu
Bolu
Bolou
Broussa
Bursa
Bursa
Grk.: Prusa
Caesarea
Kayseri
Kayseri
Grk.: Caesarea
Chanakkale
Çanakkale
Çanakkale
Grk.: Dardanellia
(Chanak)
Chankiri
Çankiri
Çankiri
Cheshme
Çeşme
Çeşme
Grk.: Cysus, Kysos
Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul
Damascus
Şam
Şam
Arab.: Dimashq / Shām
Deir Zor
Der Zor
Zor
Arab.: Dayr al-
Zawr / Deir al- Zor
Dersim
Dersim
Tunceli
Kurd.: Dersim / Zaza:
Desim
Develi
Develi
Develi
Arm.: Everek / Evereg
Diarbekir
Diyarbekir
Diyarbakır
Kurd. and Grk.:
Amid / Amed
Dortyeul
Dörtyol
Dörtyol
Arm.: Chorkmarzban
Elbistan (Albistan)
Elbistan
Elbistan
Grk. and Arm.:
Plastha / Ablastha
Erzinjan
Erzincan
Erzincan
Arm.: Yerznka
Grk.: Celtzene
Erzurum, Erzerum
Erzerum
Erzurum
Arm.: Karin
Grk.:
Theodosiopolis
Eski Shehir
Eskişehir
Eskişehir
Grk.: Dorylaeum
Gallipoli
Gelibolu
Gelibolu
Grk.: Kallipolis
Gebze
Gebze
Gebze
Grk.: Dakibyssa
Geuljuk (?)
Gölcük
Gölcük
Gumushane
Gümüşhane
Gümüşhane
Hadjin
Hacin
Hacin, Saimbeyli
Hakkari
Hakkari
Hakkari
; Kurd.: Colemêrg
Hakkiari
Hasaka
Hasaka
Hasaka
Idlib
Idlib
Idlib
Arab.: Idlib
Ismid, Nicomedia
Izmit
Izmit
Grk.: Nikomedeia
Ismit
Janik
Canik
Canik
Jizre / Jazira
Cizre
Cizre
Grk.: Gazarta
Arab.: Jazirat ibn
‘Umar
Karaman
Karaman
Karaman
(Continued)
Place Names
YW
Ottoman
Armenian, Arabic,
En glish common
name
Greek, Syriac, Latin,
name WWI
(simplified)
Turkish name
or Kurdish name
Variations
Karesi
Karesi
Karesi
Kemach / Kamach
Kemah
Kemah
Arm.: Ani- Kamach
Kerasund (Karsund, Giresun
Giresun
Grk.: Kerasund
Kerasaund)
Kharpert
Harput
Elaziğ
Arm.: Kharpert
Kilis, Killis
Kilis
Kilis
Kırklaleli
Kırkkilise
Kırklareli
Grk.: Saranta Ekklisies
Kirshehir
Kirşehir
Kirşehir
Konia / Iconium
Konya
Konya
Grk.: Ikonion
Kutahia
Kütahya
Kütahya
Byz.: Cotyaeum
Livissi
Livissi
Kayaköy
Grk.: Livissi
Magnesia, Manissa
Manisa
Manisa
Grk.: Magnesia
Makri
Fethiye
Fethiye
Grk.: Makri
Malatia
Malatya
Malatya
Grk.: Malateia
Mamouretulaziz,
Mamuretülaziz
Elazığ
Mamuret
Marash
Maraş
Kahramanmaraş
Arab.: Mar’ash
Mardin
Mardin
Mardin
Kurd.: Merdin
Marsovan
Merzifon
Merzifon
Grk.: Mersyphon
Marsuvan
Persian: Merzban
Mersivan
Menteshe
Menteşe
Menteşe
Mersina (Mersine)
Mersin
Mersin
Grk.: Zephyrion
Latin:
Hadrianopolis
Mezreh (Mamuret
Mezre
Mezre
ul
Aziz)
Midyat
Midyat
Midyat
Kurd.: Medyad
Mossoul
Mosul
Mosul
Arab.: Al- Mawsil
Syr.: Ninwe
Moush, Mush
Muş
Muş
Kurd.: Mush
Nicaea
Iznik
Iznik
Grk.: Nicaea
Nigde
Niğde
Niğde
Grk.: Magida