Garibaldi

by Lucy Riall

  61. Ibid., pp. 71–3. See also M. Finn, After Chartism. Class and nation in English radical politics, 1848–1871, Cambridge, 1993, esp. pp. 62–81; Biagini, Liberty, pp. 41–50, G. Claeys, ‘Mazzini, Kossuth and British radicalism’, Journal of British Studies, 28/3, 1989, pp. 228–44, 255–61.

  62. Isabella, ‘Italian exiles’, p. 74; Finn, After Chartism, pp. 166–72; M. O' Connor, The romance of Italy and the English political imagination, London, 1998, pp. 79–91.

  63. Finn, After Chartism, p. 166; O'Connor, The romance, p. 90.

  64. Isabella, ‘Italian exiles’, pp. 74–7; on Jessie White's activity, see E. Daniels, Jessie White Mario. Risorgimento revolutionary, Athens, OH, 1972, pp. 41–54.

  65. W. L. Vance, America's Rome, 2. Catholic and contemporary Rome, New Haven, 1989, pp. 110–22.

  66. Quoted in J. Pemble, The Mediterranean passion. Victorians and Edwardians in the South, Oxford, 1987, p. 138; for a broader discussion see Riall, ‘Rappresentazioni’.

  67. C. Crossley, French historians and romanticism. Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians, Quinet, Michelet, London, 1993, pp. 173–4.

  68. Isabella, ‘Italian exiles’, p. 78; Biagini, Liberty, p. 372; Finn, After Chartism, pp. 203–25.

  69. S. Matsumoto-Best, Britain and the papacy in the age of revolution, 1846–1851, London, 2003, pp. 137–71.

  70. Schreuder, ‘Gladstone’, p. 480. On Dante, see A. Isba, Gladstone and Dante: Victorian statesman, medieval poet, London 2006.

  71. Claeys, ‘Mazzini’, pp. 231–2, 253.

  72. A. Coviello Leuzzi, ‘Antonio Bresciani Borsa’, in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, 14, Rome, 1972, pp. 182–3.

  73. J. Godechot et al., Histoire générale de la presse française, 2, Paris, 1972, pp. 259–60.

  74. N. P. Wiseman, Recollections of the last four Popes and of Rome in their times; first published in London without date (but before or in 1857), then in 1858 and 1859.

  75. C. Barr, ‘Giuseppe Mazzini and Irish nationalism’, in Proceedings of the British Academy (forthcoming); D. Bowen, Paul Cardinal Cullen and the shaping of modern Irish Catholicism, Dublin, 1983.

  76. S. Gilley, ‘The Garibaldi riots of 1862’, Historical Journal, 16/4, 1973, pp. 700–1.

  77. Marrao, American opinion, pp. 48–63, 166–8; Vance, America's Rome, pp. 129–30.

  78. J. Petersen, ‘Das deutsche politische Italienbild in der Zeit der nationalen Einigung’, in idem, Italien-Bilder–Deutschland-Bilder, Cologne, 1999, pp. 61–5.

  79. D. Laven, ‘Mazzini, Mazzinian conspiracy and British politics in the 1850s’, Bollettino Storico Mantovano, 2, 2003, p. 278.

  80. For example, Gavazzi used Wiseman's attack to give a new lecture, and publish it as a reply to Wiseman: My recollections of the four last Popes and of Rome in their times. An answer to Dr. Wiseman, London, 1857 and 1858.

  81. T. Dwight, The Roman Republic of 1849; with accounts of the Inquisition and the siege of Rome, New York, 1851, pp. 94, 209–23.

  82. A. Dumas, Montevideo ou une nouvelle Troie, Paris, 1850, pp. 84–5.

  83. Ultimi fatti dei Croati in Lombardia con un soneto improvvisato in lode del Gen. Garibaldi, n.d. but after 1848; G. Scarpari, L'addio di Garibaldi e morte di sua moglie Racconto storico, Turin, 1850; E. Ruggieri, Della ritirata di Giuseppe Garibaldi da Roma. Narrazione, Genoa, 1850.

  84. E. Dandolo, I volontari ed i bersaglieri lombardi, Turin, 1849, p. 32; G. von Hofstetter, Giornale delle cose di Roma, Turin, 1851, p. 13.

  85. Dandolo, I volontari, was also published in London in 1851 and Milan in 1860; von Hofstetter was originally published as Tagebuch aus Italien 1849, Stuttgart, 1851. Also: L. C. Farini, Lo stato romano dall'anno 1815 all'anno 1850, Turin, 1850–1 (and London, 1851–54); C. Pisacane, Guerra combattuta in Italia negli anni 1848–49, Genoa, 1851; C. A. Vecchi, La Italia. Storie di due anni, 1848–9, Turin, 1851 (2nd edn 1856). A short account of Dandolo's life is in G. Mariani (ed.), Antologia di scrittori garibaldini, Bologna, 1958, pp. 240–1. Von Schwartz mentions von Hofstetter in Garibaldi at home: a visit to the Mediterranean Islands of La Maddalena and Caprera, London, 1860, p. 231.

  86. G. B. Cuneo, Biografia di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Turin, 1850; see Garibaldi's letter to Cuneo which acknowledges the receipt of the biography and praises it, 12 March 1850, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 9–10.

  87. N. Frye, Anatomy of criticism. Four essays. Princeton NJ, 1957, pp. 186–7.

  88. J. G. Cawelti, Adventure, mystery and romance: formula stories and popular culture, Chicago, 1976, pp. 6–9.

  89. Cuneo, Biografia, p. 73.

  90. Ibid., pp. 19–23.

  91. The Northern Tribune. A periodical for the people, 1, Jan.–July 1854, pp. 150–7.

  92. He was born in 1807.

  93. G. Ruffini, Lorenzo Benoni or passages in the life of an Italian, Edinburgh and London, 1853 (Genoa, 1834).

  94. On the original photograph, see above, p. 114. In the copy, Garibaldi stands leaning on a mantelpiece with a lion pedestal. The Chartist leader Feargus O'Connor was known as the ‘lion of freedom’: see J. Epstein, The lion of freedom: Feargus O'Connor and the Chartist movement, 1832–1842, London, 1982.

  95. In Garibaldi. Arte e storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 1, cat II/3, 67, p. 220.

  96. A. Bresciani, Lionello, Rome, 1852, pp. 73–4.

  97. This did not let up after 1849, see e.g. the pamphlet Saggio di stile epistolare e di sapienza politico-civile-militare di parecchi personaggi che furon la gloria della quinimestre Repubblica Romana con opportune annotazioni, Rome, 1850.

  98. See also, for example, H. Geale, Ernesto di Ripalto. A tale of the Italian Revolution, London, 1849; M. Roberts, Mademoiselle Mori: a tale of modern Rome, 2 vols, London, 1860; and, above all, G. Meredith, Emilia in England, London, 1864, and Vittoria, London, 1897.

  99. Anon., Angelo. A romance of modern Rome, London, 1854.

  100. Ibid., pp. 232–5.

  101. J.R. Beste, Modern Society in Rome, 3 vols, Rome, 1856, 2, pp. 78–81.

  102. Ibid., pp. 81, 91–2.

  103. Ibid., 3, pp. 282–4. The departure from Rome and the retreat is described on pp. 257, 266–7.

  104. C.G. Hamilton, The exiles of Italy, or Garibaldi's miraculous escapes. A novel, London, 1857, pp. v–viii, xxxi.

  105. Ibid., p. 71.

  106. Ibid., pp. 100–30, 177–83, 247–8.

  107. Anon., Angelo, p. 234; Modern Society in Rome, 3, pp. 143–5, 283–4; Hamilton, The exiles of Italy, pp. 99–100, 120–9. Elizabeth Barrett Browning had also dwelt on the death of Anita and her unborn child in the second part of ‘Casa Guidi windows’, written in 1851.

  108. 12 Jan., 6 April, 21 and 31 May, 15 and 22/23 June, 12 Aug. 1850, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 4, 13, 17–19, 21–3, 29.

  109. The life of General Garibaldi written by himself with the sketches of his companions in arms, New York, 1859; F. Carrano, I Cacciatori delle Alpi comandati dal generale Garibaldi nella guerra del 1859, Turin, 1860 (pp. 9–86 are Garibaldi's memoirs); Mémoires de Garibaldi, Paris, 1860; Garibaldi's Denkwürdigkeiten nach hand-schriftlichen Aufzeichnungen desselben und nach authentischen Quellen bearbeitet und herausgegeben von Elpis Melena, Hamburg, 1861.

  110. 31 May, 15 and 22 June 1850, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 19, 21–2, 23.

  111. G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence of the Roman Republic, London, 1907, p. 354.

  112. M. Thom, ‘How I made Italy’ (review of G. Garibaldi, My life), Times Literary Supplement, 17 June 2005, p. 8.

  113. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, p. 354.

  114. Nora, ‘Memoirs’, pp. 405–6, see also G. Egerton (ed.), Political Memoir, London, 1994.

  115. Ibid., p. 434.

  116. An obvious referent is Napoleon's Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène, on which see D. Le Gall, Napoléon et le Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène: analyse d'un discours, Paris, 2003.

  117. M. McLaughlin, ‘Biography and autobiography in the Italian Renaissance’, in P. France and W. St Clair (eds), Mapping lives. The uses of
biography, Oxford, 2002, pp. 37–65. On Risorgimento memoirs, see G. Trombatore, ‘Introduzione’, Memorialisti dell'Ottocento, I, Milan and Naples, 1953, pp. ix–xxv; Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento, pp. 54–5; M. Petrusewicz, ‘Giuseppe Ricciardi, ribelle, romantico europeo’, Archivio Storico per le provincie Napoletane, 117, 1999, esp. pp. 244–6.

  118. G. Fitzpatrick and F. Masiello, ‘Introduction’, and R. Piglia, ‘Sarmiento the writer’, both in T. Halperín Donghi et al. (eds), Sarmiento. Author of a nation, Berkeley, CA, 1994, pp. 1–16, 127–44.

  119. 12 Aug. 1850, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 29–30.

  120. Le memorie di Garibaldi in una delle redazioni anteriori alla definitiva del 1872, Bologna, 1932, pp. 9–10, 12.

  121. Ibid., p. 150.

  122. Ibid., pp. 16–17.

  123. Ibid., pp. 112–13.

  124. Ibid., pp. 29–30.

  125. Ibid., pp. 35, 40–2.

  126. Ibid., pp. 64–5, 136, 143.

  127. Ibid., pp. 28, 113.

  128. Ibid., pp. 13, 22, 41, 102, 121.

  129. Ibid., p. 53; ‘Anita’, ibid., Appendice A, p. 365.

  130. This point is made by Thom, ‘How I made Italy’, p. 8.

  131. Memorie, pp. 5–6.

  132. Ibid., pp. 37, 44–6.

  133. Ibid., pp. 51, 52–3, 74–5, 365, 367, 370–2, 375.

  134. Ibid., pp. 11, 45.

  135. Taylor, Ernest Jones, pp. 9–10.

  Chapter 6: Independence

  1. D. Mack Smith, ‘Victor Emanuel and the war of 1859’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971, p. 93.

  2. According to Cavour's correspondence with the king, 24 July 1858, in Il Carteggio Cavour–Nigra dal 1858 al 1861, 1, Bologna, 1961, pp. 103–14.

  3. On British policy in this period, see D. Beales, England and Italy, 1859–60, London, 1961, pp. 36–92.

  4. D. Mack Smith, ‘An outline of Risorgimento history, 1840–1870’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, p. 29.

  5. For detailed descriptions of the origins of the 1859 war, see F. Coppa, The origins of the Italian wars of independence, London, 1992, pp. 74–91; A. Blumberg, A carefully planned accident. The Italian war of 1859, London, 1990, pp. 27–104; M. Walker (ed.), Plombières: secret diplomacy and the rebirth of Italy, New York, 1968.

  6. Mack Smith, ‘Victor Emanuel’, p. 95.

  7. See R. Grew, A sterner plan for Italian unity. The Italian National Society in the Risorgimento, Princeton, NJ, 1963, pp. 193–217.

  8. J. Petersen, ‘Il mito del Risorgimento nella cultura tedesca’, in Il mito del Risorgimento nell'Italia unita, Milan, 1995, p. 454.

  9. Ibid., pp. 454–62; idem, ‘Das deutsche politische Italienbild in der Zeit der nationalen Einigung’, in idem, Italien-Bilder–Deutschland-Bilder, Cologne, 1999, pp. 73–80. See also F. Valsecchi, Italia ed Europa nel 1859, Florence, 1965, pp. 121–69 (and, for a broader discussion on Great Power politics and the Italian Question in 1859, see pp. 52–84).

  10. H. R. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–61, New York, 1932, pp. 225–35.

  11. D. Beales and E. Biagini, The Risorgimento and the unification of Italy, London, 2002 edn, pp. 114–20.

  12. An example of this kind of approach is in Coppa, Origins, who pays hardly any attention at all to the role of nationalism in the Italian wars. But even an organisation as pro-nationalist as the Istituto per la Storia del Risorgimento at Rome sees the war of 1859 purely in terms of international relations: see the essays in Nel centenario del 1859. Atti del XXXIX congresso di storia del Risorgimento italiano, Rome, 1960.

  13. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 111–22.

  14. Ibid., pp. 122–3.

  15. A. M. Isastia, Il volontario militare nel Risorgimento. La partecipazione alla guerra del 1859, Rome, 1990, p. 103.

  16. These figures are given in L. de la Varenne, Les Chasseurs des Alpes et des Apennins. Histoire complète, Florence, 1860, p. 307 and are used in the official government publication, La guerra del 1859 per l'indipendenza d'Italia, vol 1. Narrazione, Rome, 1910, p. 117.

  17. See the breakdown of figures in Isastia, Il volontario, pp. 189–242.

  18. De la Varenne, Les Chasseurs, pp. 302–5. He reports that money also came from overseas and from as far away as the USA.

  19. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 178. Isastia suggests that the movements of these men can be seen as a kind of political and economic ‘migration’, but offers little evidence to substantiate this claim. Il volontario, p. 14.

  20. Ibid., p. 101.

  21. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 174–5.

  22. Ibid., p. 170.

  23. D. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, pp. 31–2.

  24. Cavour to Nigra, 6 & 7 March 1859, in Cavour–Nigra, 2, pp. 61, 64. See also his comments on 9 March, p. 74.

  25. 30 June 1860, in Epistolario, 4, p. 85.

  26. 22 Dec. 1858, ibid., 3, p. 195.

  27. See speeches nn. 113–16, 128, 133–4, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 164–6, 176–7, 181–2.

  28. Epistolario, 4, facing p. 80.

  29. See the report in The Times, 20 June 1859. The writer also says that the volunteers still wore no uniform, ‘just a small tricolour cockade’, although G. M. Trevelyan says they ‘dressed after the ugly, conventional patterns of the line regiments’. Garibaldi and the Thousand, London, 1908, p. 90.

  30. Epistolario, 3; see also his letters of 20 Dec. 1858 to Deideri and Specchi, ibid., pp. 191–3, and to La Farina, 30 Jan. 1859, in ibid., 4, p. 7.

  31. See esp. 21 Dec. 1858, in Epistolario, 3, p. 193, and 8 and 30 Jan, 15 March, 4 and 17 April 1859, in ibid., 4, pp. 3, 6–7, 14, 19–20, 27. For Cairoli's accounts, see ibid., pp. 277, 229–30, 238–9.

  32. To Planet de la Faye, 23 April 1859, ibid., p. 31.

  33. 26 Feb., 7 March, 10 April 1859, ibid., pp. 11, 13, 22. Translation in G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the making of Italy, London, 1911, pp. 299–300.

  34. 24 April 1859, ibid., p. 33.

  35. 25 April 1859, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 164.

  36. 9 March 1859, Cavour–Nigra, 2, p. 74.

  37. Isastia, Il volontario, pp. 97–101.

  38. In L'Eco d'Italia, 16 Feb. 1859 and New York Evening Post, 21 May 1859. Quoted in Marraro, American opinion, p. 241.

  39. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, pp. 402–3.

  40. Luigi Carlo Farini to Cavour, 28 March 1859, quoted in Isastia, Il volontario, p. 10. For a discussion of the differences between volunteering and the regular army as a military model, see L. Riall, ‘Eroi maschili, virilità e forme della guerra’, in A. M. Banti and P. Ginsborg (eds), Il Risorgimento, Turin, forthcoming.

  41. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 175; Isastia, Il volontario, finds that the vast majority of those enrolled in the royal army were aged between eighteen and twenty-six, while over 40 per cent of those in the Cacciatori were twenty-seven years of age or older, pp. 212–13, 239.

  42. Isastia, Il volontario, pp. 10–12.

  43. See Garibaldi's letter to Cavour, 21 May 1859, in Epistolario, 4, pp. 52–3.

  44. G. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, 2 vols, Florence, 1882, 1, p. 471.

  45. Quoted in Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 99.

  46. There are a number of contemporary sources for Garibaldi's part in the 1859 war. See, in particular, F. Carrano, I Cacciatori delle Alpi comandati dal Generale Garibaldi nella guerra del 1859 in Italia, Turin, 1860, and W. Rüstow, La guerra d'Italia del 1859, Turin[?], 1859. Other sources are: La guerra del 1859, 1, pp. 116–21, 275–96; A. Rocca, ‘La campagna del 1859’, Garibaldi condottiero, Rome, 1932; and there are useful shorter accounts in P. Pieri, Storia militare del Risorgimento, Turin, 1962, pp. 621–3; and Trevelyan, The Thousand, pp. 82–109.

  47. Ibid., pp. 106, 108.

  48. 23 May 1859, Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 168.

  49. G. Visconti Venosta, Ricordi di gioventù: cose vedute o sapute (1847–1860), Milan, 1904, p. 453.

  50. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 106; Garibaldi
to the king, 3 July 1859, Epistolario, 4, p. 89.

  51. Epistolario, 4, pp. 88–9; on Peard, see also G. M. Trevelyan, ‘The war journals of Garibaldi's Englishman’, Cornhill Magazine, 24, Jan.–June 1908, pp. 96–110. De la Varenne says that volunteers came from France, Baden and Poland as well as Hungary and England, and he is the source of the information about Guerrazzi's translator, Charles Scott: see Les Chasseurs, pp. 307, 319–22.

  52. C. Arrivabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel. A personal narrative, London, 1862, pp. 299–300.

  53. 26 July 1859.

  54. Epistolario, 4, p. 55.

  55. Carrano, I Cacciatori, pp. 253–4.

  56. This description is by Giovanni Cadolini, Memorie del Risorgimento dal 1848 al 1862, Milan, 1911, p. 319, and is confirmed by Carrano, I Cacciatori, p. 254, and G. della Valle, Varese, Garibaldi ed Urban nel 1859 durante la guerra per l'indipendenza italiana, Varese, 1863, pp. 38–9.

  57. Cadolini, Memorie, p. 332; Carrano, I Cacciatori, p. 310.

  58. Luigi Gemelli to Agostino Bertani, MRM, Archivio Bertani, Cartella 9, plico viii, n.120/15; partly quoted in Isastia, Il volontario, p. 10.

  59. Grew points out that the Society's propaganda efforts were much more successful than their efforts at co-ordination and organisation, but suggests that this mattered little if at all during the confused events of May–June 1859. A sterner plan, esp. p. 205.

  60. Visconti Venosta, Ricordi, pp. 543–4.

  61. Ibid., p. 544.

  62. 31 Oct. 1859, in Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 102.

  63. Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 184.

  64. 18 July 1859, Epistolario, 4, pp. 97–8.

  65. Ibid., pp. 99, 102. See also his letter of 21 July to Lorenzo Valerio, ibid., p. 100.

  66. 27 July 1859, ibid., p. 102.

  67. See his letter to the king, 13 and 15 Aug., and to Ricasoli, 22 Aug. 1859, ibid., pp. 120–1, 123–4.

  68. 29 Aug. 1859, ibid., p. 128.

  69. Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 190–1, 201–11.

  70. To Valerio, 21 Sept. and 5 Nov. 1859; to Vincenzo Malenchini, 18 Dec. 1859, in Epistolario, 4, pp. 142, 182–3, 209–10.

  71. Quoted in Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 119.