Garibaldi

by Lucy Riall

72. 19 Nov. 1859, in Epistolario, 4, p. 166.

  73. 2–4 Nov. 1859, ibid., pp. 151–3.

  74. 25 Oct. and 8 Nov. 1859, ibid., pp. 175, 183.

  75. 11 and 22 Oct., 9 and 14 Nov, ibid., pp. 161, 172, 184, 186–7. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 223.

  76. T. Trollope, Social aspects of the Italian revolution in a series of letters from Florence, London, 1861, p. 95.

  77. Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 418, who also describes the ceremony transferring her remains. Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 191–6.

  78. A. Scirocco, Garibaldi, Rome and Bari, 2001, p. 223.

  79. 19 and 23 Nov. 1859, Scritti e discorsi, 4, pp. 211, 215–16; 16, 25 and 29 Nov. 1859, Epistolario, 4, pp. 187, 191, 195. Pagliano's portrait of Garibaldi from life, in December 1859, shows him still wearing the General's uniform (in MRM).

  80. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 123.

  81. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 229–31.

  82. 21 Dec. 1860, Epistolario, 4, p. 213. In late October, Garibaldi had told the king that he should become the dictator of central Italy, ‘just like in Piedmont’, ibid., p. 180.

  83. His speech to the students of Pavia is ibid., pp. 215–18, the others are in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 217–21.

  84. Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 223–4.

  85. Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 423.

  86. Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 225.

  87. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 165.

  88. C. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901. From nation to nationalism, Oxford, 2002, p. 168.

  89. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 178.

  90. Ibid., p. 166.

  91. From Giuseppe Cacciari [?], Modena, 24 Nov. 1859, MCRR, b.45 n.26/ 75.

  92. The Times, 29 Nov. 1859.

  93. Joseph Kerr to Mr Vetter, 8 Dec. 1859, MCRR, b.52 3/33.

  94. Trevelyan, The Thousand, App. K, pp. 340–1.

  95. On this episode, see M. Mulinacci, La bella figlia del lago. Cronaca intima del matrimonio fallito di Giuseppe Garibaldi con la marchesina Raimondi, Milan, 1978.

  96. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 424–6; see his letters to Teresa Araldi Trecchi, 22 Sept. 1859, and to Sofia Bettini, 24 Oct. 1859, in Epistolario, 4, pp. 143, 174.

  97. 28 and 29 Jan., 26 Feb. 1860, ibid., 5, pp. 34–5, 43–4.

  98. 30 Nov. 1859, ibid., 4, pp. 195–6.

  99. 6 March 1860.

  100. H. de Viel-Castel, Mémoires du comte Horace de Viel-Castel sur le règne de Napoleon III (1815–1864), 6 vols, Paris, 1883–4, 6, 8 March 1860, p. 45.

  101. From Luigi Reali, 6 Jan. 1860, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtolo, f. 603; 5 Jan. 1860, in Epistolario, 5, p. 6.

  102. 15 March 1860, ibid., p. 48; for more details about the planned insurrection, see Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 168–79.

  103. 26 Nov. 1859, Epistolario, 4, p. 192; 11 Jan. 1860, ibid., 5, p. 14 (this letter also mentions that Carrano, his Italian editor, had a copy of the memoirs), and 28 March 1860, ibid., 5, pp. 25–6. On the encounter with Dumas, see G. Pécout, ‘Una crociera nel mediterraneo con Garibaldi’, in A. Dumas, Viva Garibaldi, Turin, 2004, p. xvi.

  104. 2 Feb. 1860, MCRR b.47 2/1. Thackeray was writing as the editor of Cornhill Magazine. See also Garibaldi's letter to Dall'Ongaro of 21 Jan. 1860, where he refuses to give him a copy of the ms. and mentions that a ‘Signor Troloppa’ [Trollope?] was also interested in his memoirs, 28 March 1860, Epistolario, 5, p. 55.

  105. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 169.

  106. Epistolario, 5, p. 53.

  107. L. Oliphant, Episodes in a life of adventure, Edinburgh and London, 1887, p. 171.

  108. On the Palermo insurrection, see L. Riall, Sicily and the unification of Italy, 1859–66. Liberal policy and local power, Oxford, 1998, pp. 66–71.

  109. D. Mack Smith, ‘Cavour and the Thousand, 1860’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, esp. pp. 184–6.

  110. On the complexities surrounding Garibaldi's decision and Crispi's role, see Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 180–6.

  111. Epistolario, 5, pp. 73–4.

  112. For a discussion, see P. Ginsborg, ‘Risorgimento rivoluzionario: mito e realtà di una guerra di popolo’, Storia e Dossier, 47, 1991, pp. 61–97.

  113. The list of the Thousand was compiled by the Italian Ministry of War in 1864–5, and formed the basis of a pension given to them by a law passed in 1865: see Legge colla quale è assegnata una pensione vitalizia a ciascuno dei Mille fregiato della medaglia d'onore a ricordo della spedizione di Marsala, Torino, 22 gennaio 1865, Milan, 1865. See also A. Pavia, Album dei Mille, Genoa, 1862, idem, Indice completo dei Mille, Genoa, 1867 (and M. Pizzo, L'Album dei Mille di Alessandro Pavia, 2004).

  114. G. Bandi, I Mille da Genova a Capua, Milan, 1977 (1886), pp. 16–18.

  115. R. Balzani, ‘I giovani del Quarantotto: profilo di una generazione’, Contemporanea, 3/3, 2000, pp. 403–16.

  116. Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 205.

  Chapter 7: Fashioning Garibaldi

  1. C. Bellanger, J. Godechot et al., Histoire générale de la presse française. Tome II, De 1815 à 1871, Paris, 1972, p. 277.

  2. H. K. Henisch and B. A. Henisch, The photographic experience, 1839–1914. Images and attitudes, Philadelphia, PA, 1993, pp. 365–95.

  3. A. Briggs and P. Burke, A social history of the media, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 135–6.

  4. See the comments in H. R. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–61, New York, 1932, pp. 244–9; and G. Lutz, ‘La stampa bavarese negli anni dell'unificazione italiana (1858–1862)’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 53/1 (1966), esp. pp. 35–47.

  5. New York Times, 12, 20 and 22 July 1859.

  6. The Times, 27 June, 2, 3, 4, 6 July 1859; it should be noted that The Times changed its stance from an anti-Italian position to a much more favourable view in 1859.

  7. 25 Feb. 1860.

  8. C. Arrivabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel. A personal narrative, London, 1862, pp. 304–5.

  9. Garibaldi. Arte e Storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 2, cat. VII, 22 & 25, p. 54; ibid., pp. 115, 120–1.

  10. The Times, 2 July 1859.

  11. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, p. 413.

  12. Bellanger et al., Histoire générale, pp. 8–10; C. Charle, Le Siècle de la presse (1830–1939), Paris, 2004, pp. 91–4.

  13. M. Milan, ‘Opinione pubblica e antigaribaldinismo in Francia: la querelle sull'unità d'Italia (1860–66)’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 70/2 1983, pp. 143–4.

  14. M. Bernardi, ‘Garibaldi et l'opinion publique française de 1860 à 1882’, Université de Paris I, Centre de Recherches d'Histoire XIX–XXe Siècles, Mémoire de Maîtrise, 1982, p. 19.

  15. Bellanger et al., Histoire générale, p. 277.

  16. See especially 23 April, 7, 14 and 21 May 1859, for the outbreak of war; and 28 May and 25 June 1859 on the movement of the military.

  17. Journal pour tous. Suppl. au.n.218: n.1. 4 June 1859; suppl. au. n.232: n.26, 10 Sept. 1859.

  18. Souvenirs de la guerre d'Italie. Chants guerriers par messieurs Auguste Barbier, Pierre Dupont, Fernand Denoyers, Gustave Mathieu, Charles Vincent. Musique et accompagnement de piano par MM. Darcier, Pierre Dupont, Hector Salmon et Mme Mélanie Dentu. Paris, n.d. but 1859.

  19. 7, 14, 21 and 28 May, 4, 11, 18 and 25 June 1859.

  20. Album storico–artistico. 1859 Guerra d'Italia. Scritta dal corrispondente del Times al campo Franco–Sardo con disegni dal vero di C. Bossoli. Lith. par les Freres Fd & Charles Perrin. Paris and Turin, 1860; Album storico–artistico delle guerre per l'indipendenza italiana. Pubblicato in due parti, Turin, 1860–1.

  21. L'Italia e i suoi difensori. Album storico–biografico dell'avv. Giuseppe Pistelli, ornato da ritratti e stampe litografiche, Florence, 1860.

  22. L'Illustration, 4 June 1859.

  23. Le Siècle, 2 June 1859. This ‘hommage’ to Garibaldi, by H. Lamarche was reprinted with Anatole de la Forge's biography of Garibaldi as Histoire du Général Garibaldi, Paris, 1859.

  24. Marraro, American opinion, pp. 246–57; D. Beales, Englan
d and Italy, 1859–60, London, 1961, pp. 64–8. In both countries, however, there was considerable divergence of opinion, due to the presence of Mazzinians, who criticised the war, and to anti-French feeling in Britain.

  25. 14 June 1859, p. 545; the same image was published on the cover of New York's Harper's Weekly, 9 June 1860; Journal pour tous, suppl., 4 June 1859, n. 1, p. 20.

  26. Garibaldi. Arte e storia, 1, p. 97.

  27. 3 June 1859, p. 392.

  28. Epistolario, 4, facing p. 176.

  29. See e.g. Le Siècle and L'Illustration, both 4 June 1859.

  30. Ibid., 25 June 1859.

  31. C. Paya, Histoire de la guerre d'Italie. Garibaldi, Paris, 1860, p. 165.

  32. The Times, 20 June and 26 July 1859.

  33. L'Illustration, 18 June 1859.

  34. The Times, 20 June 1859.

  35. Ibid., 26 July 1859.

  36. Journal pour tous, suppl. 4 June 1859; 11 June 1859; 18 June 1859; 10 Sept. 1859; Paya, Histoire; New York Times, 31 May 1859; Harper's Weekly, 18 June 1859; Album storico–artistico. 1859 and L'Italia e i suoi difensori.

  37. Biografia di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Florence, 1859. See also Biografia del Generale Giuseppe Garibaldi prode difensore della indipendenza italiana, Milan, 1859; Garibaldi ed i Cacciatori delle Alpi. Cenni biografico–storici colla narrazione dei più recenti fatti d'arme, Milan, 1859; M. Carletti, Biografia del Generale G. Garibaldi, Florence, 1859.

  38. Garibaldi. Eine biographische Darstellung nach bisher unbekannten Documenten, Berlin 1859; L. von Alvensleben, Garibaldi. Seine Jugend, sein Leben, seine Abenteuer und seine Kriegsthaten, Weimar, 1859; W. Raible, Leben und Abenteuer des berühmten Freischaarenführers Joseph Garibaldi, General der sardinischen Armee und der italienischen Liga, Munich, n.d. but 1859; Leben und merkwürdige Abenteuer Joseph Garibaldi's, kühnen Aufwieglers und tapferen Bandenchef, Zurich, 1859; L. C. Cnopius, Garibaldi. Zijn Leven, Krijgsbedrijven en Avonturen, Haarlem, 1859. See also T. Moegling, Ein Besuch bei Garibaldi im Sommer 1859, Zurich, 1860, and in general on German interest in Garibaldi in this period, W. Altgeld, ‘Giuseppe Garibaldi in zeitgenössischer Sicht von der Verteidigung Roms bis zur Niederlage bei Mentana (1848–1867)’, Risorgimento, 1982–3, pp. 175–8.

  39. G. Sand, Garibaldi, Paris, 1859; A. Delvau, G. Garibaldi. Vie et aventures, 1807–1859, Paris, 1859; P. Dupont and A. d'Aunay, Mémoires sur J. Garibaldi, Paris, 1860; H. Castille, Garibaldi, Paris, 1859.

  40. G. B. Cuneo, Biografia di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Turin, 1850; T. Dwight, The life of Garibaldi written by himself, New York, 1859. The London edition does not seem to have enjoyed a large circulation in Britain: the BL has no record of a copy, although there is a London edition in the library of the University of Birmingham.

  41. Delvau, Garibaldi, p. 23.

  42. Colonel Exalbion, Garibaldi: his life, exploits and the Italian campaigns, London, 1859, p. 6.

  43. Hommes du jour, L'empereur Francois-Joseph, Garibaldi, Lord Palmerston, Le prince Schwarzenberg … Le général Filangieri, Le roi Ferdinand II, Le duc de Modène, Le prince régent de Prusse, Madame la princesse de Prusse, Le maréchal Canrobet, Paris, 1859, p. 31.

  44. Castille, Garibaldi, pp. 3–4, 7–8. In Ludovico Ariosto's famous narrative poem Orlando furioso (1532), the hero is driven mad by love but eventually cured, and his return to the ranks of Charlemagne's army leads to the end of the siege of Paris and the defeat of the pagan armies. The suggested parallel with Garibaldi and the war of 1859 seems obvious.

  45. Ibid., pp. 35–6.

  46. Delvau, Garibaldi, p. 2.

  47. Sand, Garibaldi, p. 16.

  48. L. Goëthe, Garibaldi, sa vie, son enfance, ses moeurs, ses exploits militaires, Paris, 1859, p. 10; Garibaldi et ses hommes rouges, Paris, 1860, pp. 10–13; von Alvensleben, Garibaldi, pp. 7–10; Dupont and d'Aunay, Mémoires, p. 11.

  49. Goëthe, Garibaldi, p. 18.

  50. Ibid., pp. 19–52.

  51. Von Alvensleben, Garibaldi, p. 23; Garibaldi. Eine biographische Darstellung, p. 15; Raible, Leben und Abenteuer, pp. 10–17.

  52. J. la Messine, Garibaldi, Paris, 1859, p. 20. Juliette also published under the name ‘Lamber’ and ‘Adam’; and an 1860 edition of the same Garibaldi is authored by Alexis la Messine.

  53. J. Godechot, ‘Un Journaliste français libéral ami de l'Italie: Charles Paya (1813–1865)’, in Il liberalismo moderato nel Risorgimento. Atti del XXXVII congresso di storia del Risorgimento italiano, Rome, 1961, pp. 111–13.

  54. Exalbion, Garibaldi, pp. 11–12, 152.

  55. Garibaldi's Englishman, performed in St James Theatre, Dec. 1859, BL, Lord Chamberlain's plays, ADD 52988 U.

  56. Garibaldi, by Tom Taylor, performed Oct. 1859, ibid., 1859 ADD 52985 H.

  57. Delvau, Garibaldi, p. 20.

  58. C. Pita, Biographie du Général Garibaldi, Paris, 1859, p. 40; De la Forge, Garibaldi, p. 6.

  59. Delvau, Garibaldi, p. 14; Pita, Biographie, p. 40; Hommes du jour, p. 37.

  60. Castille and Pita give her name as Léonta, as do the authors of Hommes du jour, Biografia del Generale Garibaldi and Leben und merkwürdige Abenteuer Joseph Garibaldis.

  61. Von Alvensleben, Garibaldi, pp. 5–6.

  62. Ibid., pp. 79–80.

  63. Dupont and D'Aunay, Mémoires, p. 8.

  64. Ibid., p. 15.

  65. Lucia's story is ibid., pp. 33–120.

  66. Ibid., p. 122.

  67. Ibid., pp. 5–6.

  68. Ibid., pp. 152–3, 156.

  69. B. Hamnett, ‘Fictitious histories: the dilemma of fact and fiction in the nineteenth-century historical novel’, European History Quarterly, 36/1, 2006, pp. 31–60; M. Samuels, The spectacular past. Popular history and the novel in nineteenth-century France, Ithaca, NY, 2004.

  70. Castille, Garibaldi, p. 3; see also pp. 4–5, 8, 42.

  71. Ibid., pp. 59–60, 62.

  72. P. Vermeylen, Les Idées politiques et sociales de George Sand, Brussels, 1984, pp. 150–1.

  73. Sand, Garibaldi, pp. 4, 14, my emphasis.

  74. ‘Garibaldi’, in Souvenirs.

  75. Paya, Histoire, p. 14.

  76. Delvau, Garibaldi, p. 2; for a general discussion, see J. R. Dakyns, The Middle Ages in French literature, 1851–1900, Oxford, 1973, esp. pp. 96–109.

  77. Godechot, ‘Paya’, p. 112.

  Chapter 8: The Thousand

  1. G. Bandi, I Mille da Genova a Capua, Milan, 1977 (1886), p. 45.

  2. Still the most complete account of the expedition is G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand, London, 1909, pp. 211–64. There is a very detailed description of the movements of the volunteers between Marsala and Palermo in C. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, Oxford, 2002, pp. 187–96. Much of the following description is based on these two works.

  3. G. C. Abba, The Diary of One of Garibaldi's Thousand, London, 1962 (1880), pp. 11, 19; Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 222.

  4. Bandi, I Mille, pp. 42, 67–8.

  5. E. Zasio, Da Marsala al Volturno. Ricordi, Padova, 1868, p. 34.

  6. G. Nuvolari, Come la penso, Milan, 1881 (1861), p. 250.

  7. 28 May 1860, in I. Nievo, Lettere garibaldine, Turin, 1961, p. 7.

  8. 24 June, ibid., p. 17.

  9. S. Corleo, Garibaldi e i Mille a Salemi, Rome, 1886, p. 7.

  10. F. Brancato, ‘L'amministrazione garibaldina e il plebiscito in Sicilia’, in Atti del XXXIX congresso di storia del Risorgimento Italiano, Rome, 1961, p. 181.

  11. On Pantaleo, see B. E. Maineri, Fra Giovanni Pantaleo, Ricordi e note, Rome, 1883; Garibaldi's proclamation is in Scritti e discorsi, 4, pp. 250–1.

  12. 28 May 1860, in Nievo, Lettere, p. 8.

  13. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 191.

  14. See Nievo's letter of 24 June, Lettere, p. 18.

  15. Abba, Diary, p. 64.

  16. 27 May, first published in Il Pungolo in June 1860, reprinted in Nievo, Lettere, p. 157.

  17. Trevelyan, The Thousand, pp. 295–327. The description of the commander of the Hannibal, Rear-Admi
ral Mundy, is probably the best eyewitness account of the taking of Palermo: R. Mundy, H.M.S. ‘Hannibal’ at Palermo and Naples during the Italian Revolution, 1859–1861, London, 1863.

  18. In a letter to the Italian exile, Antonio Panizzi, quoted in G. Dethan, ‘Réactions françaises à l'enterprise des “Mille” en Sicile (mai–août 1860)’, Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique, 99/3–4, 1985, p. 199.

  19. 12 June 1860, in E. Hodder, The life and work of the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, K. G., London, 1892, p. 563.

  20. D. Beales, England and Italy, 1859–60, London, 1961, pp. 131–62.

  21. L. Riall, Sicily and the unification of Italy. Liberal policy and local power, 1859–1866, Oxford, 1998, pp. 62–71.

  22. D. Mack Smith, ‘The peasants' revolt in Sicily, 1860’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971, p. 205.

  23. Riall, Sicily, pp. 73–4.

  24. Ibid.; Mack Smith, ‘The peasants' revolt’, p. 206.

  25. Rosolino Pilo was killed in a skirmish in the mountains, which deprived the revolutionaries of an important leader. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 194–5.

  26. The Times, 8 June 1860.

  27. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 192–3; Riall, Sicily, pp. 86–90.

  28. Riall, Sicily, pp. 87–9.

  29. Quoted in Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 192.

  30. G. Fiume, La crisi sociale del 1848 in Sicilia, Messina, 1982.

  31. L. Riall, ‘“Ill-contrived, badly executed [and] … of no avail?” Reform and its impact in the Sicilian latifondo (1770–1910)’, in E. dal Lago and R. Halpern (eds), The American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno. Essays in comparative history, London, 2002, pp. 132–52.

  32. 10 Aug. 1860, in ASP, Ministero e Real Segretaria di Stato presso il Luogotenente Generale, Polizia. Miscellanea. b.1510, f. personale del distretto di Alcamo.

  33. For a general analysis of all these problems, see Riall, Sicily, pp. 92–107.

  34. D. Mack Smith, ‘Cavour and the Thousand’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, p. 108.

  35. The classic analysis of these early conflicts in Sicily is idem, Cavour and Garibaldi, 1860. A study in political conflict, Cambridge, 2nd edn 1985, pp. 22–99, and see also Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 199–201.

  36. Riall, Sicily, pp. 80–3.