Garibaldi

by Lucy Riall

  37. R. Grew, A sterner plan for Italian unity. The Italian National Society in the Risorgimento, Princeton, NJ, 1963, pp. 298–301.

  38. Ibid., 301–2; see the detailed list in G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the making of Italy, London, 1911, App. B, pp. 316–18.

  39. Abba, Diary, pp. 95–100; G. Adamoli, Da San Martino a Mentana. Ricordi di un volontario, Milan, 1911 (1892), pp. 109–30.

  40. C. S. Forbes, The campaign of Garibaldi in the Two Sicilies. A personal narrative, Edinburgh and London, 1861, p. 126.

  41. There is a substantial literature on the revolt at Bronte: see L. Riall, ‘Nelson versus Bronte: land, litigation and local politics in Sicily, 1799–1860’, European History Quarterly, 29/1, 1999, pp. 39–73; M. S. Messana Virga, Bronte 1860, Caltanissetta & Rome, 1989; Mack Smith, ‘The peasants' revolt’, pp. 212–15.

  42. Trevelyn, The making of Italy, pp. 80–90.

  43. Ibid., pp. 99–100.

  44. Ibid., p. 138.

  45. Ibid., p. 146.

  46. C. Arrivabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel. A personal narrative, London, 1862, p. 148.

  47. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, pp. 151–65.

  48. H. Elliot, Some revolutions and other diplomatic experiences, London, 1922, p. 71.

  49. M. Monnier, Garibaldi. Histoire de la conquête des deux Sicilies. Notes prises sur place au jour le jour, Paris, 1861, p. 296.

  50. Ibid., p. 155 (according to the speech in Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 266, Garibaldi said, ‘We will see each other again! We will meet again on the continent and this time, by God, we will not be enemies!’).

  51. A. Mario, The red shirt. Episodes, London, 1865, p. 160.

  52. Monnier, Garibaldi, pp. 215–16.

  53. W. G. Clark, ‘Naples and Garibaldi’, in F. Galton (ed.), Vacation tourists and notes of travel in 1860, Cambridge, 1861, p. 24.

  54. Arrivabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel, p. 190.

  55. Zasio, Da Marsala, p. 88 (Zasio was in the carriage with Garibaldi).

  56. Clark, ‘Naples’, p. 25.

  57. Forbes, The campaign, p. 237 (see also his lengthy description at pp. 232–4).

  58. 11 Sept. 1860, in M. Menghini (ed.), La spedizione garibaldina di Sicilia e di Napoli nei proclami, nelle corrispondenze, nei diarii del tempo, Turin, 1907, p. 305.

  59. Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, pp. 204–21, 243–50.

  60. Quoted in Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 211, from R. Romeo, Vita di Cavour, Rome and Bari, 1984, p. 481.

  61. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, p. 257.

  62. Cavour and Garibaldi, pp. 310–11.

  63. Quoted in M. Rosi, Il Risorgimento italiano e l'azione d'un patriota cospiratore e soldato, Rome, 1906, pp. 414–15.

  64. Quoted in Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, p. 310.

  65. Ibid., pp. 311–19; Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 213–16.

  66. Quoted in Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, p. 403.

  67. Ibid., p. 388, and, in general, pp. 376–91.

  68. Mario, The red shirt, pp. 276–90.

  69. A. S. Bucknell, In the tracks of the Garibaldians through Italy and Sicily, London, 1861, p. 122.

  70. Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, pp. 408–9.

  71. Idem (ed.), Garibaldi. Great lives observed, London, 1960, p. 59.

  72. Mundy, H.M.S. ‘Hannibal’, pp. 282, 285.

  73. Monnier, Garibaldi, p. 383.

  74. Carlotta Roskilly, 13 Nov. 1860, in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 612; ‘Sauvage’, ibid., f. 627; see also the letters from Felicità Benso di Verdura, 21 Dec., ibid., f. 268.

  75. M. C. Ruggieri Tricoli, I giochi di Issione. Segni ed immagini della modernità nelle architetture provvisorie della Palermo borbonica, Palermo, 1990, pp. 143–8.

  76. Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, p. 1.

  77. 18 July 1860, in T. Palmenghi-Crispi (ed.), The memoirs of Francesco Crispi, 1. The Thousand, London, 1912, p. 300.

  Chapter 9: Making Italian Heroes

  1. L. Riall, Sicily and the unification of Italy, 1859–66. Liberal policy and local power, Oxford, 1998, pp. 91–102.

  2. On the centrality of the Vespers to Sicilian revolutionary identity, see G. la Mantia, ‘I ricordi di Giovanni di Procida e del Vespro nei proclami rivoluzionari dal 1820 al 1860’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 28, 1931, suppl., pp. 217–19; and more generally, see G. Giarrizzo, ‘Note su Palmieri, Amari e il Vespro’, Archivio Storico per la Sicilia Orientale, 69, 1973, pp. 355–9; and F. Brancato, Storiografia e Politica nella Sicilia dell'Ottocento, Palermo, 1973, pp. 196–208.

  3. 11 May, Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 249 (all dates henceforth are 1860 unless stated).

  4. 30 May, ibid., p. 255.

  5. June, ibid., pp. 264–5.

  6. 2 June, ibid., p. 258.

  7. Ibid., p. 259; 13 June, p. 265; 20 June, p. 269.

  8. 3 Aug., ibid., p. 283.

  9. 11 or 14 May, ibid., pp. 250–1.

  10. 11 May, ibid., p. 249.

  11. 1 June, ibid., p. 258.

  12. 6 Aug., ibid., p. 289.

  13. Aug., ibid., pp. 291–3.

  14. In M. Menghini (ed.), La spedizione garibaldina di Sicilia e di Napoli, Turin, 1907, p. 119.

  15. G. C. Abba, The diary of one of Garibaldi's Thousand, London, 1962 (1880), p. 74.

  16. The Times, 15 June; see also similar eyewitness descriptions in E. Zasio, Da Marsala al Volturno. Ricordi, Padova, 1868, p. 58, and E. Lockroy, Au hasard de la vie. Notes et souvenirs, Paris, 1913, pp. 29–30.

  17. C. S. Forbes, The campaign of Garibaldi in the Two Sicilies. A personal narrative, Edinburgh and London, 1861, pp. 118, 195.

  18. M. Monnier, Garibaldi. Histoire de la conquête des deux Siciles. Notes prises sur place au jour le jour, Paris, 1861, p. 302.

  19. J. Butler, In memoriam Harriet Meuricoffre, London, 1901, p. 50; on Garibaldi's assistance to the Protestants in Naples (including the granting of land to build a church), see M. Pellegrino Sutcliffe, ‘Victorian congregations and Anglican chaplains in unified Italy (1861–1891)’, MA thesis, Birkbeck College London, 2001, pp. 24–5.

  20. G. Tricoli, ‘Il mito di Garibaldi in Sicilia’, Archivio Storico Siciliano, serie 4, 9, 1983, p. 100; F. Brancato, ‘La partecipazione del clero alla rivoluzione siciliana del 1860’, in La Sicilia verso l'unità d'Italia, Palermo, 1960, p. 22.

  21. C. Arrivabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel. A personal narrative, London, 1862, p. 230.

  22. R. Tosi, Da Venezia a Mentana (1848–1867), Forlì, 1910, p. 90; W. G. Clark, ‘Naples and Garibaldi’, in F. Galton (ed.), Vacation tourists and notes of travel in 1860, Cambridge, 1861, pp. 29, 54.

  23. H. Elliot, Some revolutions and other diplomatic experiences, London, 1922, p. 85. On the San Gennaro miracle and its meaning, see M. P. Carroll, Madonnas that maim. Popular Catholicism in Italy since the fifteenth century, Baltimore, MD, 1992, pp. 115–19.

  24. For a useful discussion, see E. Muir, Ritual in early modern Europe, Cambridge, 1997, esp. pp. 232–46.

  25. Forbes, The campaign, p. 118.

  26. G. Oddo, I Mille di Marsala. Scene rivoluzionaria, Milan, 1863, p. 568.

  27. Forbes, The campaign, p. 204.

  28. In D. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, p. 131, from L. Colet, L'Italie des Italiens, 4 vols, Paris, 1862–3, pp. 66–7.

  29. Butler, In memoriam, p. 51.

  30. Monnier, Garibaldi, p. 302.

  31. ACP, Atti del Consiglio Comunale di Palermo, Deliberazioni Consiglio Comunale, n. 1.

  32. That is, on 27 Sept. the council approved unanimously the expenditure for the celebrations.

  33. 1 July, the$pretore to the president of the consiglio civico, ACP, Corrispondenza Finanza, n. 17/4.

  34. La Mola, Gazzetta popolare di Sicilia, 20 July.

  35. 27 July, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, p. 182.

  36. La Forbice, Gazzetta popolare di Sicilia, 21 July.

  37. From the Nazione, 29 July, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, pp
. 443–4.

  38. Il 19 luglio 1860. Festa popolare in Palermo pel giorno natalizio del generale Giuseppe Garibaldi, Palermo, 1860, pp. 12–14.

  39. Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, p. 445.

  40. Il 19 luglio, pp. 6–10.

  41. La Forbice, 28 July.

  42. H. F. Winnington-Ingram, Hearts of oak, London, 1889, p. 212.

  43. Raffaello Carboni to Agostino Bertani, 21 July, in MRM, Archivio Bertani, Cartella 11, plico xii. See also the description in Crispi's paper, Il Precursore, 21 July.

  44. There is now a huge literature relating to this aspect of nationalism; for a recent study of the same period, S. Hazareesingh, The Saint-Napoleon. Celebrations of sovereignty in nineteenth-century France, Cambridge, MA, 2004.

  45. M. C. Ruggieri Tricoli, I giochi di Issione. Segni ed immagini della modernità nelle architetture provvisorie della Palermo borbonica, Palermo, 1990; on France: M. Samuels, The spectacular past. Popular history and the novel in nineteenth-century France, New York, 2004, pp. 18–62.

  46. La Nazione, 29 July, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, p. 442. For a discussion of the cult of Santa Rosalia in Palermo, see S. Cabibbo, Santa Rosalia tra terra e cielo, Palermo, 2004; and on Italian popular Catholicism more generally, M. P. Carroll, Veiled threats. The logic of popular Catholicism in Italy, Baltimore, MD, 1996.

  47. 10 July, Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 273.

  48. La Nazione, 29 July, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, p. 443.

  49. See the report in Il Garibaldi. Giornale Politico, 19 June, pp. 21–2 and La Nazione, 8 July (in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, pp. 132–3); Brancato, ‘La partecipazione del clero’, pp. 23–4.

  50. F. Venosta, Rosolino Pilo e la rivoluzione siciliana. Notizie storiche, Milan, 1863, pp. 130–3; Il Giornale di Sicilia, 25 Aug. On the creation of the church of San Domenico as a Sicilian ‘pantheon’ in the nineteenth century, see P. Antonino Barilaro OP, San Domenico di Palermo. Pantheon degli uomini illustri di Sicilia, Palermo, 1971, pp. 74–5.

  51. Giornale Officiale del Governo Provvisorio di Sicilia, 29 May, a.1, n.1.

  52. 25 July.

  53. 21 Aug.

  54. 18 and 19 Sept.

  55. E. Gentile, The sacralization of politics in fascist Italy, Cambridge, MA, 1996, pp. 2–5; M. Ridolfi, ‘Per una storia della religione civile: il “caso italiano” in prospettiva comparata’, Memoria e Ricerca, 13, 2003, pp. 133–40.

  56. On which, see C. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, Oxford, 2002, pp. 426–50.

  57. Artisans had also been at the centre of popular revolt against the government; for example the 1820 revolt in Palermo was largely caused by the government's attempt to abolish the trade guilds or maestranze. See O. Cancila, Palermo, Rome and Bari, 1988, pp. 47–52; Riall, Sicily, pp. 39–41, 207–11.

  58. L. Sarullo (ed.), Dizionario degli artisti siciliani, 2, Palermo, 1993, pp. 27–8, 81–2, 300–1; M. Accascina, Ottocento siciliano. Pittura, Palermo, 1982 (1939), pp. 59–63, 93–100, 140–1. Bagnasco went on to have a career as an official ‘nationalist’ artist. He worked on the monument to Pilo and produced a famous curtain for the Teatro Garibaldi which showed Garibaldi sitting at the fountain in Piazza Pretorio (see Garibaldi alla fontana pretoria in Palermo, Sipario, Palermo, 1895, and the sketch in the Museo del Risorgimento, Palermo). On Lojacono, who took part in the fighting with his still more famous painter son, Francesco, see M. Vitella, ‘Una traccia per Luigi Lojacono’, in G. Barbera et al., Francesco Lojacono, 1838–1915, Palermo, 2005, pp. 369–75. The main designer for the Pilo monument was the architect, Giovan Battista Basile, later responsible for the giardino Garibaldi in Piazza Marina and the Teatro Massimo, Palermo's monumental opera house. See more generally N. and M. C. Bullaro, ‘L'impresa dei “Mille” nei pittori garibaldini’, Nuovi Quaderni del Meridione, 80, 1982, esp. pp. 559–62.

  59. For a discussion of Italian journalism in this period, see V. Castronovo, ‘Stampa e opinione pubblica nell'Italia liberale’, in idem, L. G. Fossati and N. Tranfaglia, La stampa italiana nell'età liberale, Rome and Bari, 1979, pp. 15–56.

  60. 5 May, Epistolario, 5, p. 92.

  61. The Times, 12 May; New York Times, 24 May.

  62. 5 May, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 239–41; a facsimile of the flyer is in Garibaldi. Arte e storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 2, cat. x, 13, pp. 56, 58.

  63. 5 May, in Epistolario, 5, pp. 90–1.

  64. 5 May, ibid., p. 95, and Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 239.

  65. 5 May, Epistolario, 5, p. 96.

  66. 9 June (from which this translation is taken). The original is dated 7 May, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 242.

  67. G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and The Thousand, London, 1909, p. 230.

  68. 16 May, Epistolario, 5, pp. 104–5. Bertani's letter was published on 4 June, Pilo's on 27 May.

  69. To Besana and Finzi, 28 May, Epistolario, 5, p. 116 (published in Il Diritto, 11 June); see also to Bertani, 3 June, ibid., p. 124.

  70. To Thomas Parker, 24 June, ibid., pp. 139–40 (published in the Morning Herald and L'Unità Italiana, 11 July); see also ‘Agli ufficiali della crociera inglese’, May, ibid., pp. 120–1 (published in L'Unità Italiana of 1 June); ‘Alla Regina Vittoria’, 22 June, ibid., pp. 137–8 (published in Il Diritto, 15 Aug.); ‘Al Presidente del comitato londinese per i soccorsi alla Sicilia’, 24 June, ibid., pp. 141–2 (published in L'Unità Italiana, 10 July).

  71. 3 Aug., in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 282–4; see also above, p. 227.

  72. Garibaldi. Discorso di Giacomo Oddo. Letto all'Istituto d'istruzione popolare in Milano, Milan, 1860, pp. 6–7, 11, 14.

  73. F. D. Guerrazzi, Addio ai giovani soldati volontarii della impresa italica capitanata dal Generale Garibaldi, 1860; Il Precursore, 18 Sept.

  74. In MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 5; the material on the ‘funerali’ is in ibid., cartella 11, plico xii, n. 99.

  75. See, e.g., the letter from the editor of the Florentine paper, La Nazione, in which he says that he would have liked to have known more about the expedition at the outset, but is still pleased to publish information and letters relating to it. 9 May, to Bertani, ibid., cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 21.

  76. F. dell'Ongaro, É Garibaldi. Canzone, Florence, 1859; I. Nievo, Gli amori garibaldini. Con poesie e introduzione, Como, 1911; S. di Paola, ‘Il mito di Garibaldi nella poesia italiana’, in F. Mazzonis (ed.), Garibaldi condottiero. Storia, teoria, prassi, Milan, 1984, p. 510.

  77. Letter from Andra Fasciolo, 5 May, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, p. 7.

  78. Ibid., p. 9.

  79. La Nazione, 18 June; L'Unità Italiana, 22 June, ibid., pp. 105–9.

  80. Il Diritto, 6 and 16 July, ibid., pp. 146–7, 151.

  81. 27 June, ibid., p. 94.

  82. Il Movimento, suppl. to 18 June, ibid., pp. 97–8.

  83. Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, pp. 162–7.

  84. Ibid., p. 173.

  85. L'Unità Italiana, 5 Aug. and 9 Sept., ibid., pp. 225, 292.

  86. 13 May, Epistolario, 5, p. 101.

  87. 18, 21 and 29 May, in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, pp. 21–3.

  88. Ibid., p. 31.

  89. Ibid., esp. pp. 57–80 (in Il Diritto, Il Movimento, La Gazzetta di Genova, L'Unità Italiana, and La Nazione).

  90. L'Unità Italiana, 4 Aug., ibid., p. 243.

  91. Il Movimento, 3 Aug., ibid., p. 249.

  92. L'Opinione, 15 Sept., ibid., pp. 311–13.

  93. 13 May, ibid., pp. 14–15.

  94. 3 June, ibid., p. 33.

  95. 5 Aug., ibid., p. 214.

  96. 28 Aug., ibid., pp. 271–2.

  97. G. Pécout, ‘Una crociera nel mediterraneo con Garibaldi’, in A. Dumas, Viva Garibaldi. Un'odissea nel 1860, Turin, 2004, pp. xii–xiii.

  98. 16 Oct. in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 378.

  99. 4 Aug.

  100. Les garibaldiens. Révolution de Sicile et de Naples, Paris, 1861, which he then republished with additions in Le Monte-Cristo in 1862. An English translation was pub
lished in 1861: see the translator's note to another version of the same text, On board the Emma. Adventures with Garibaldi's ‘Thousand’ in Sicily, trans. R. S. Garnet, London, 1929, pp. xi–xii. For a discussion, see F. Boyer, ‘“Les Garibaldiens” de Alexandre Dumas: roman ou chose vue?’, Studi Francesi, 4, 1960, pp. 26–34.

  101. Suppl. to Il Movimento, 18 Aug. in Menghini (ed.), La spedizione, pp. 183–204. The phrase ‘my dear Italians’ was changed to ‘my dear Sicilians’ in the Sicilian papers.

  102. Quoted in Monnier, Garibaldi, p. 136.

  103. The Times 15 June; L'Unità Italiana, 10, 18 April, 23 June and 3 July, in G. Rondoni, ‘Garibaldi nei vecchi giornali della patria’, Garibaldi, numero unico, 1907, p. 49.

  104. M. Bernardi, ‘Garibaldi et l'opinion publique française de 1860 à 1882’, Université de Paris I, Centre de Recherches d'Histoire XIX–XXe Siècles, Mémoire de Maîtrise, 1982, pp. 23–4; for an analysis of anti-Garibaldi opinion in France, see M. Milan, ‘Opinione pubblica e antigaribaldinismo in Francia: La querelle sull'unità d'Italia (1860–1868)’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 60/2, 1983, pp. 147–8.

  105. Halte-là Garibaldi!, Paris, 1860, p. 3.

  106. ILN, 19 May, p. 465.

  107. 24 May.

  108. G. Dethan, ‘Réactions françaises à l'enterprise des “Mille” en Sicile (mai–août 1860)’, Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique, 99/3–4, 1985, p. 203.

  109. Mémoires de Garibaldi par Alexandre Dumas, précédés d'un discours sur Garibaldi par Victor Hugo et d'une introduction par George Sand, 2 vols, Brussels, 1860, pp. viii–ix.

  110. H. Durand-Brager, Quatre mois de l'expédition de Garibaldi en Sicile et en Italie, Paris, 1861, pp. i–ii.

  111. D. Stübler, ‘Guerra e rivoluzione in Italia nella stampa liberale prussiana (1859–1860)’, Contemporanea, 1/3, 1998, pp. 590–2; W. Altgeld, ‘Giuseppe Garibaldi in zeitgenössicher Sicht (1848–1867)’, Risorgimento, 1982–83, pp. 178–83, 186–9; G. Lutz, ‘La stampa bavarese dal 1858 al 1862’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 53/2, 1966, pp. 221–2.

  112. On Marx and Engels' attitude to Garibaldi and the Thousand, see Altgeld, ‘Giuseppe Garibaldi’, pp. 183–6.

  113. H. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–61, New York, 1932, p. 280.