by Lynn Schler
6. Hakim Adi, “Pan-Africanism and West African Nationalism in Britain,” African Studies Review 43, no. 1 (April 2000): 69–82.
7. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
8. W. Jeffrey Bolster, “‘Every Inch a Man’: Gender in the Lives of African American Seamen, 1800–1860,” in Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700–1920, ed. Margaret S. Creighton and Lisa Norling (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 39.
9. Michael A. Gomez, Reversing Sail: A History of the African Diaspora (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 194.
10. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter Ekore to M. B. Glasier, 11 October 1958.
11. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter A. Monday to M. B. Glasier, 10 October 1958.
12. Ibid.
13. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter A. Monday to M. B. Glasier, 11 October 1958.
14. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, Chief Steward of the m.v. Aureol to Mr. Boswell, 5 May 1959 (written from Las Palmas).
15. Jacqueline N. Brown, Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 91.
16. Marika Sherwood, Pastor Daniels Ekarte and the African Churches Mission, Liverpool, 1931–64 (London: Savannah Press, 1994).
17. Diane Frost, Work and Community among West African Migrant Workers since the Nineteenth Century (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999), 198.
18. See Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from John Holt at ED to M. B. Glasier, 6 May 1959.
19. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/3, letter from G. D. Gibbins to M. Nicholson, 3 April 1958.
20. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from the seamen’s union to Elder Dempster Lines in Lagos, 12 June 1959.
21. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/3, Public Notice, Nigerian Union of Seamen, April 1958.
22. Merseyside Maritime Museum, Nigerian Union of Seamen Apapa Strike 1959, letter from ED officer in Lagos to M. Glasier, 21 June 1959.
23. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from the seamen’s union to Elder Dempster Lines in Lagos, 22 January 1959.
24. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, notes from Mr. Glasier’s interview with Captain Perkins of the s.s. Winneba.
25. Ibid.
26. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, P. A. R. Lindsay to G. Foggon (Labour Advisor to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Colonial Office), 6 February 1959.
27. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, Mr. Dyson to Mr. Glasier, 23 December 1958.
28. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/3, letter from Tom Yates to Sir Vincent Tewson, 26 June 1958.
29. Merseyside Maritime Museum, Nigerian Union of Seamen Apapa Strike 1959, letter from ED officer in Lagos to M. Glasier, 21 June 1959.
30. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, P. A. R. Lindsay to G. Foggon (Labour Advisor to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Colonial Office), 6 February 1959.
31. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from G. H. Neville in Nigeria to M. B. Glasier, 24 January 1959.
32. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, R. H. Chalcroft to M. Glasier, 10 February 1959.
33. Ibid.
34. This conversation was reported in a letter from R. H. Chalcroft to M. Glasier on 10 February 1959, Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962.
35. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from the Secretariat and Education Bureau to the general membership, 10 January 1959.
36. Report of the Board of Enquiry into the Trade Dispute, appendix C.
37. Daily Telegraph (Lagos), 27 May 1959.
38. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from M. B. Glasier to R. N. Chalcroft, 6 July 1959.
39. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, letter from M. B. Glasier to R. N. Chalcroft, 24 June 1959.
40. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, African Defense Association (and signing the letter from Sojourner Truth) to Mr. Glasier, 30 June 1959.
41. Merseyside Maritime Museum, Nigerian Union of Seamen Apapa Strike 1959, report from Apapa voyage, June 1959.
42. Merseyside Maritime Museum, Nigerian Union of Seamen Apapa Strike 1959, report from R. R. Worthington, June 1959.
43. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, Charles Elston to Mr. Glasier, 30 June 1959.
44. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Union of Seamen 1959–1962, Elder Dempster representative in Lagos to Mr. Glasier, 1 July 1959.
45. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 16.
46. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2047 Mr. Glasier 1951–1961, Glasier to the University of Liverpool, 29 October 1959.
47. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, Sidi Khayam address to the First Delegates Conference (no date, but must be in 1960 at the earliest because of reference to Salubi inquiry).
48. Ibid.
49. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/1, report on the m.v. Dan Fodio crisis, 12 August 1960.
50. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 416.
51. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/1, report on the m.v. Dan Fodio crisis, 12 August 1960.
52. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, Nigeria Shipping Federation to M. B. Glasier, 9 January 1960.
53. Elder Dempster, Lagos, Robertson, to Steamship Nautical Dept Liverpool, 26 April 1960.
54. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, Sidi Khayam address to the First Delegates Conference (no date, but must be in 1960 at the earliest because of reference to Salubi inquiry).
55. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/1, report on the m.v. Dan Fodio crisis, 12 August 1960.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects, 141.
59. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2047 Mr. Glasier 1951–1961, Glasier to Tod, 13 November 1959.
60. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, Paxton to Holt, 10 August 1962.
61. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, extract from a letter from Mr. Gale, 12 January 1960.
62. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, Nigerian Shipping Federation to M. B. Glasier, 4 February 1960.
63. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/11, Paxton to Yates, 16 February 1960.
64. Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, mss/292/966.3/11, Paxton to Yates, 25 August 1960.
65. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, letter to Gale, 6 October 1959.
66. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, B. Koffe to Elder Dempster, 24 September 1959.
67. Björn Beckman, Sakhela Buhlungu, and Lloyd Sachikonye, eds., Trade Unions and Party Politics: Labour Movements in Africa (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2010), 13.
68. Peter Waterman, Division and Unity amongst Nigerian Workers: Lagos Port Unionism, 1940s–60s, vol. 11 (The Hague: Institute of Social Studies, 1982), 23.
69. For a broader discussion of the disempowerm
ent of rank-and-file labor in postcolonial Nigeria, see ibid.; also Paul M. Lubeck, “Unions, Workers and Consciousness in Kano, Nigeria: A View from Below,” in The Development of an African Working Class: Studies in Class Formation and Action, ed. Richard Sandbrook and Robin Cohen (London: Longman, 1975), 139–60; Adrian J. Peace, “The Lagos Proletariat: Labour Aristocrats or Populist Militants?” in The Development of an African Working Class: Studies in Class Formation and Action, ed. Richard Sandbrook and Robin Cohen (London: Longman, 1975), 281–302; and Bill Freund, The African Worker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 103–4.
70. Abubakar Momoh, “Popular Struggles in Nigeria, 1960–1982,” African Journal of Political Science 1, no. 2 (1996): 164.
71. Björn Beckman and Salihu Lukman, “The Failure of Nigeria’s Labour Party,” in Beckman, Buhlungu, and Sachikonye, Trade Unions and Party Politics, 60.
72. Interview with Sunday Nwachukwu, 24 December 2007.
73. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 1909 Commander Shelbourne, Palm Line to Glasier, 7 June 1963.
74. Interview with Adebowale Adeleye, 16 December 2007.
75. Interview with Muritala Olayinka alli-Balogun, 15 December 2007.
76. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 4C 1908 Nigerian Seamen’s Union, crew letter from the m.v. Apapa in Liverpool to Gen. Sec. Sidi Khayam, 18 July 1961.
CHAPTER 4: THE BIRTH OF THE NIGERIAN NATIONAL SHIPPING LINE
1. Okechukwu C. Iheduru, The Political Economy of International Shipping in Developing Countries (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1996), 21.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., 233.
4. Ebere Nwaubani, “Constitution-Making and the Nigerian Identity, 1914–1960,” in The Transformation of Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, ed. Adebayo Oyebade (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2002), 88–89.
5. Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 149.
6. Rotimi T. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington: US Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 24.
7. Akanmu G. Adebayo, “The Collapse of Nigeria’s Federal System of Government,” in Oyebade, Transformation of Nigeria, 120.
8. Peter P. Ekeh, “The Structure and Meaning of Federal Character in the Nigerian Political System,” in Federal Character and Federalism in Nigeria, ed. Peter P. Ekeh and Eghosa E. Osaghae (Ibadan: Heinemann, 1989), 21.
9. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria, 24–25.
10. Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Development in Nigeria (Aldershot: Avebury, 1995), 83.
11. Ismaila Mohammed, “The Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decrees (1972 and 1977) and Indigenisation in Nigeria” (PhD diss., University of Warwick, 1985), 38.
12. Falola and Heaton, History of Nigeria, 159.
13. Axel Harneit-Sievers, “African Business, ‘Economic Nationalism,’ and British Colonial Policy: Southern Nigeria, 1935–1954,” African Economic History 24 (1996): 87.
14. Ibid.
15. Quoted in Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945–1963 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239–40.
16. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire.
17. Ibid., 261.
18. Olakunle A. Lawal, “British Commercial Interests and the Decolonization Process in Nigeria, 1950–60,” African Economic History 22 (1994): 93–110; Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire, 274.
19. Harneit-Sievers, “African Business,” 115.
20. E. O. Akeredolu-Ale, “Private Foreign Investment and Underdevelopment of Indigenous Entrepreneurship in Nigeria,” in Nigeria: Economy and Society, ed. Gavin Williams (London: Rex Collins, 1976), 67–82; Larry J. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity and Democracy in Nigeria: The Failure of the First Republic (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 30.
21. Björn Beckman, “Whose State? State and Capitalist Development in Nigeria,” Review of African Political Economy 9, no. 23 (1982): 39.
22. Olasupo Ojedokun, “The Changing Pattern of Nigeria’s International Economic Relations: The Decline of the Colonial Nexus, 1960–1966,” Journal of Developing Areas 6, no. 4 (1972): 535–36.
23. Chibuzo N. Nwoke, “Towards Authentic Economic Nationalism in Nigeria,” Africa Today 33, no. 4 (1986): 56.
24. Ibid., 62.
25. Michael Adejugbe, “The Myths and Realities of Nigeria’s Business Indigenization,” Development and Change 15, no. 4 (1984): 578.
26. Nwoke, “Towards Authentic Economic Nationalism in Nigeria,” 60.
27. Adejugbe, “Myths and Realities of Nigeria’s Business Indigenization,” 578.
28. Adeoye A. Akinsanya, “The Power Structure in Nigeria and the Indigenization of the Economy,” Pakistan Horizon 47, no. 2 (1994): 66.
29. Ibid., 67.
30. Ibid.
31. Charlotte Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 1909–1959 (Leiden: Sythoff, 1963).
32. Ibid.
33. Iheduru, Political Economy of International Shipping, 53.
34. Ayodeji Olukoju, “A ‘Truly Nigerian Project’? The Politics of the Establishment of the Nigerian National Shipping Line (NNSL), 1957–1959,” International Journal of Maritime History 15, no. 1 (2003): 69–90.
35. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, notes from NEC meeting, January 1957.
36. Ibid.
37. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, extract from fifth meeting of the NEC, 8 October 1957.
38. PRO-British National Archives, COM 201/11/01 Shipping Service West Africa, M. Terry, 12 August 1958.
39 Ibid.
40. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, extract from seventh NEC meeting, 6 September 1958.
41. Ibid.
42. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Joyce to Lindenberg, 20 January 1958.
43. Ibid.
44. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, press release of Njoku’s speech, 25 November 1958.
45. Ibid.; emphasis in the original.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.; emphasis in the original.
48. Bassey U. Ekong, “Survival Opportunities and Strategies of a Marginal Firm in a Cartelized Oligopoly: Case Study of the Nigerian National Shipping Line” (PhD diss., Michigan State University, 1974), 179.
49. PRO-British National Archives, COM 201/11/01 Shipping Service West Africa, Ministry of Transport to Saker, 27 July 1959.
50. PRO-British National Archives, COM 201/11/01 Shipping Service West Africa, Cheeseman to Innes, 27 January 1959.
51. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, Stapleton to Robertson, 4 February 1959.
52. PRO-British National Archives, COM 201/11/01, Shipping Service West Africa, Ministry of Transport to Saker, 27 July 1959.
53. Ibid.
54. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, Remarks of Minister Amanze Njoku in House of Representatives, 19 February 1959; emphasis in the original.
55. “The Shipping Muddle,” Daily Times, 23 February 1959.
56. Daily Service, 24 April 1959.
57. Daily Service, 25 April 1959.
58. “Nationalists in Office,” West African Pilot, 4 April 1959.
59. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Minister of Transport Njoku, House of Representatives Debates, 17 August 1959.
60. Ibid.
61. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Leif Hoegh to Joyce, 28 January 1958.
62. Ironically, it was the Black Star Line that initially opposed the membership of the Nigerian National Shipping Line, hoping to negotiate a better cargo share for themselves before voting in the Nigerians. This effort was abandoned after pressure from Elder Dempster. See Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Joyce to Traub, 12 May 1959.
63. Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 77.
64. Ibid., 86–88.
65. Ibid., 9–12.
66. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, notes on a visit to West Africa, Stapleton, 25 May 1959.
67. Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 88.
68. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Joyce to Evans, 10 April 1959.
69. Ibid.
70. Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 92.
71. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, and Democracy in Nigeria, 30.
72. PRO-British National Archives, CO 554/1683, Remarks of Minister Amanze Njoku, 8 June 1959.
73. Quoted in Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire, 257.
74. PRO-British National Archives, COM 201/11/01, Shipping Service West Africa, extract from West Africa press survey, 30 December 1959.
75. Ekong, “Survival Opportunities and Strategies,” 182.
76. Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 68.
77. Quoted in Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire, 259.
78. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Joyce to Hoffman, 5 June 1959.
79. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, NNSL to Muirhead, 23 July 1959.
80. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Joyce to Ojukwu, 17 February 1961.
81. Gerald Chidi, “Nigerian National Shipping Lines, the Beginning and the End,” Vanguard, 1 November 2011, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/11/nigerian-national-shipping-lines-the-beginning-and-the-end.
82. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Ojukwu to Joyce, 16 May 1959.
83. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, “Establishment of Branch Offices in West Africa,” 10 July 1961.
84. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Press release, 28 September 1960.
85. Leubuscher, West African Shipping Trade, 68.
86. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, board meeting notes, 31 May 1960.
87. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Ojukwu to Minister of Transport, 19 May 1960.
88. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, board meeting notes, 31 May 1960.
89. Ibid.
90. Merseyside Maritime Museum, 2247 J. Joyce 1959–1961, Minister of Transport and Aviation to Chairman of NNSL, 31 December 1960.
