Silver, Sword, and Stone

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Silver, Sword, and Stone Page 61

by Marie Arana

nature, in indigenous religions, 256–59, 264–67, 315–18, 346

  Neruda, Pablo, 11, 93

  Netherlands, 96, 97, 100, 286, 287, 331

  New Granada, 155, 158

  New Laws of the Indies, 288–89

  Newmont Mining Corporation, 113, 122–24

  New Spain, Viceroyalty of, 93

  New Yorker, 216–17

  Nicaragua, 49, 78, 117, 181, 188, 196–98, 220–22, 244, 286, 326, 330, 334, 341

  Ninan Cuyochi, 32, 35–36

  Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell), 101

  “Ninety-Five Theses” (Luther), 281

  Nixon, Richard, 119, 187–88, 191

  Noriega, Manuel, 349

  North America, 73, 125–29

  indigenous tribes of, 104, 138, 142, 260, 344

  “Northern Triangle” (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras), 216, 246

  Oaxaca, 25

  Obama, Barack, 119–20

  Ochochoque, Juan Sixto:

  miner’s lifestyle of, 17–18, 45–46, 107–10, 113, 125–26, 131, 248, 376

  physical decline, illness, and death of, 3, 37–38, 114, 125–28, 272, 359

  Ochochoque Gonzáles, Henrry, 128, 359

  Ochochoque Gonzáles, Jhon, 125–28, 359

  Ochochoque Gonzáles, Mariluz, 127, 128, 359

  Ochochoque Gonzáles, Senna, 36, 127, 128, 337, 359

  Odebrecht scandal, 243, 347, 446

  Odría, Manuel, 293

  O’Higgins, Bernardo, 192

  oil industry, 116, 118, 128, 270, 353, 356, 443, 445

  Ojibwe people, 260

  oligarchies, 220, 223–24

  Olmecs, 256, 261, 263, 265

  Olmedo, Bartolomé de, 299

  Olympic Games (Summer, 1968), 189

  Ometeotl, 279

  Oñate, Juan de, 154

  One Hundred Years of Solitude (García Márquez), 115

  Open Veins of Latin America (Galeano), 276

  opium, in drug trade, 173

  oral histories, 19

  Orellana, Francisco de, 73

  Organization of American States, 124, 203

  orisha gods, 315

  Ortega, Daniel, 326, 360

  Orwell, George, 101, 361

  Osorio, Carlos Arana, 187–88

  Ospina, Mariano, 203

  Ottoman Empire, 14

  Ovando, Nicolás de, 54–55, 73, 76, 83

  Pachacamac, 92

  Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui, Inca emperor (Pachacuti, or Pachacutiq Inka Yupanki), 5, 21, 149, 273

  Pachacuti (revolutionary change), 227, 254, 269, 330

  Pachamama, 4, 18, 105–7, 150, 151, 257, 315

  Pacific Ocean, 56–57, 73, 105, 196, 282, 300

  Páez, José Antonio, 244

  Paine, Thomas, 167, 170

  palabreros, 147–48

  pallaqueo (hunt for gold), 1, 127

  pallaqueras (rock spill scavengers), 46, 125

  Panama, 22, 49, 56, 57, 63, 74–80, 82, 171, 201, 222, 242, 243, 260, 261, 286, 300, 349

  Panama Canal, U.S. control of, 201, 203

  Pan American Conference, 203

  Paraguay, 147, 171, 174–77, 213, 244, 261, 270, 273, 291, 295, 311, 339, 346, 350

  Patagonia, 209–10

  Paul IV, Pope, 96

  Paz, Octavio, 133, 194, 346

  Paz Estenssoro, Victor, 270

  Pearl Islands, 74, 77

  Penn, William, 199

  Pentacostalism, 4, 329, 330, 335–36

  Pentland, Joseph Barclay, 15–17, 37

  People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 182

  Pérez, Juan, 297

  Pérez, Louis, 400, 401

  Perón, Eva Duarte “Evita,” 211, 251, 254, 267–68

  Perón, Isabel, 211–12

  Perón, Juan, 211, 244, 349, 358, 360

  Peru, 12, 16, 20–21, 93, 108–13, 132, 155–58, 167, 171, 181, 189, 209, 214, 224, 227, 243, 244, 270, 289–90, 293–95, 347, 353

  author’s family roots in, 7–8, 241, 274, 389, 437

  map, xiii

  mining in, 1–4, 92, 108–113, 120, 148; see also specific mines

  Pizarro’s conquest of, 73–96, 109, 151–54, 290

  postrevolutionary political chaos in, 103, 177–78

  as source of silver, 71, 72, 75, 82

  violence in, 2, 135, 225–32, 239, 241, 247

  Xavier’s mission in, 293–94

  Peruvian Armed Forces, 231–32

  Pétion, Alexandre, 169

  Philip II, king of Spain and Holy Roman emperor, 97, 289–90, 303, 403

  Philippines, 72, 93

  Pillars of Hercules, 39, 43, 71

  Pinochet, Augusto, 5, 119, 188–89, 214, 244, 354, 358, 446

  pirates, piracy, 43, 83, 96, 165, 199

  Pirú (indigenous leader as well as mythical region), 75, 77, 78, 81–82, 84, 300

  Pius II, Pope, 43

  Pius IX, Pope, 322

  Pius XII, Pope, 268

  Pizarro, Francisco, 2, 53, 57, 74, 75–76, 80, 82, 84, 88–89, 93, 147, 289, 300–301, 358, 431

  and Atahualpa, 73, 85–90, 114, 122, 297, 301

  discoveries and conquests of, 14, 73–96, 109, 151–54, 241, 255, 300–301, 349, 362, 388

  Pizarro, Gonzalo, 289, 301, 401

  Pizarro, Hernando, 86, 92, 301

  Pizarro, Juan, 301

  plagues, 13, 34–36, 66, 85

  see also specific diseases

  Platt Amendment, 169

  Plaza de Mayo, demonstration for the disappeared in, 211

  “Plus Ultra” motto, 71, 100

  Politics (Aristotle), 288

  Polo, Marco, 46–47

  Pol Pot, 229

  Popol Vuh, 264–65

  Popular Front, 252–53

  Porco, Bolivia, 11, 13–14, 94

  Portugal, 49, 50, 141–42, 164, 182, 189, 242, 286, 295, 311

  Brazil under, 93, 102, 141, 239, 347

  in quest for mineral wealth, 43–44, 46, 67, 75

  Potosí, silver mining boom and bust in, 11–15, 16, 93–100, 102, 112, 271, 276, 289, 292, 327

  poverty, 173, 189, 216, 226, 241, 245–46, 325, 328, 330, 353, 357, 446

  addressed by Church, 320, 323, 333

  four spiritual initiatives on, 328–29

  of miners’ lifestyle, 17–18, 112–13, 125–27

  after revolution, 194, 315

  Power of Gold, The (Bernstein), 121

  Princeton University, 320

  printing presses, 148, 281, 308

  prison riots, 231

  prosperity theology, 336

  prostitution, 4, 112–13, 392

  Protector of the Indians, Las Casas as, 285

  Protestantism, 12, 100, 281, 317, 330, 343

  threat to Catholic Church from, 4, 330

  see also Evangelical Protestant movements

  Protestant Reformation, 71, 78, 281, 290, 296, 427

  Pueblo rebellion (1680), 154–55

  pundonor (pride), 293, 300

  Pyramid of the Sun, 265

  pyramids, 261, 263, 265, 272, 425

  Quechua language, 30, 33, 88, 124, 260–61, 269, 291, 292, 293, 311–12, 348–49

  Quechua people, 226–27, 232, 262, 309, 319, 327, 328, 338, 347, 360

  Quetzalcoatl, 64, 266, 381–82

  Quillacingas tribe, 32

  Quiriguá, monoliths at, 263

  Quiroga, Pedro de, 319

  Quispe, Leon, 392

  Quito, 30–37, 168, 211, 293–94

  Quito rebellion (1765), 155

  race wars, 156–58, 196, 231

  racial identity:

  in author’s family, 345, 356

  language of, 345–46, 403

  of Latin American countries, 441

  racial mixing, 7, 154, 240, 344–45

  racial purity, 29–31, 141

  racism, 96, 102–4, 173–74, 184, 309, 321, 325, 326, 344

  legacy of, 189, 290–91, 321, 344–47

  Spanish-born dominion in, 101–4, 1
29, 148–49, 165, 345

  supremacy of whites in, 7, 96, 103, 117, 124, 128, 129, 131, 147, 148, 154, 159, 165, 173, 178–79, 193, 195, 210, 226, 240–41, 268–70, 288, 291, 293, 302, 308, 313, 314, 315, 319, 341, 343–47

  violence of, 156–58, 200, 240

  against whites, 154–55, 174, 199, 231

  rain forests, 110, 262

  Raleigh, Walter, 140

  Rangel, Carlos, 354

  ransoms, 212, 216, 221

  rape, 90, 219, 225, 307

  Ratzinger, Joseph, see Benedict XVI, Pope

  raza cósmica, la (Cosmic Race), 345

  Razón de Mi Vida, La (E. Perón), 268

  Reagan, Ronald, 213, 216, 220–22

  rebellion:

  of Creoles, 165–66

  historical roots of, 151–58

  of indigenous people, 31, 32, 139, 151, 154–58

  of Tupac Amaru II, 156–58, 172, 230–31

  see also revolutions, Latin American

  reconquista, la (Latin America), 169

  Reconquista (Spain), 41

  reducciones (Jesuit settlements), 295–96, 302–3

  reductions (resettlements), 3, 94, 97–99, 307

  religion:

  in Latin American culture, 3–8, 249–350, 361–62

  global decline in, 330–31

  indigenous, see indigenous religions

  see also specific theologies

  repartimiento de mercancía, 119

  requerimiento, 88, 282, 284

  Revolución y contrarevolución (Kruijt), 220

  Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), 2, 224–25, 355, 418

  Revolutionary Party, 218

  revolutions, Latin American, 294, 324

  of Bolívar, 166–72

  Church weakened and recast after, 313–19

  death toll and despoliation of, 171, 194, 314

  dictatorship as legacy of, 177–78, 192–222, 243–44, 360

  end of, 16, 116, 314

  failure to effect change in aftermath of, 129, 173, 193

  historical roots of, 101–4, 151–58, 223, 313–14

  Latin American psyche shaped by, 163–91

  political upheaval following, 101, 103, 174–77, 192–94

  prelude to, 269–70, 313–14

  proliferation of, 168–69

  reforms after, 270

  Spain expelled by, 102–3, 166–72, 178, 238, 305, 314

  violence in, 2–3, 168–71, 172–91, 238, 245, 314

  see also specific movements and leaders

  Rights of Man (Paine), 170

  Ríos Montt, Efraín, 219–20, 244

  Rockefeller, John D., 116

  Roman Empire, 277

  Romero, Óscar, 217, 333–34, 341, 358

  Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 117, 159, 394

  Roosevelt, Theodore, 198, 201, 411

  Root (radical organization), 342

  Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 182, 244

  Rosenberg, Tina, 210

  Royal Audience of Quito, 166

  Royal Dutch Shell, 116

  royal fifth, 58, 59, 82–83, 100

  rubber industry, 116–17, 392

  Ruiz, Bartolomé, 79–80

  Ruíz, Samuel “Red Bishop,” indigenous advocacy of, 340–43

  Sabato, Ernesto, 177, 244

  Sahagún, Bernardino de, 308, 348

  Saint Peter, Basilica of, 71, 281

  Sandinistas, 221

  Sandino, Augusto, 197–98, 221

  San Jorge de Mina (Ghana), 43

  San Juan River, 74, 78

  San Martín, José de, 171

  Santa Anna, Antonio López de, 192, 194–95, 244, 410

  Santa Barbara mercury mines, 99, 389

  Santa Fe de Bogotá, 145

  Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, Pueblo rebellion in, 154–55

  Santa María settlement, 56

  Santayana, George, 136–37, 232

  Santería, 207, 235, 315

  Santiago, 77

  Santo Domingo, 14, 49, 55, 200

  Santo Domingo, Church of, 38

  secret police, 213–14

  Selk’nam people, 209–10

  Seneca, 46

  September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 121–22

  Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 288, 308

  Serapis, Temple of, 277

  Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), 2, 3, 45, 226–32, 244, 247, 343, 355, 418

  silver, 13, 15, 20, 28, 40–41, 45, 47, 66, 71, 72, 75, 82, 83, 85, 92, 93–100, 101–4, 105, 109, 121, 128, 130, 131, 153, 179, 223, 270, 328

  as symbolic of Latin American mineral wealth, 2

  silver mining, 96, 99, 126

  boom and bust in, 11–15

  proliferation of, 25–26, 94–100

  Sistine Chapel, ceiling of, 282

  slaves, slavery, 117, 197, 198

  African, 81, 93–96, 103, 104, 116, 125, 141, 162, 386

  Aristotle’s theory of, 288

  Columbus’s participation in, 51, 54

  emancipation of, 168–71

  ended in Latin America, 285

  in indigenous civilizations, 25, 31, 138, 298

  indigenous Latin Americans as, 49, 56–58, 61–62, 65, 74, 76, 81, 84, 90, 103, 139–41, 144, 283–85, 294–96, 307, 309, 311, 335

  in North America, 125, 171

  paradox of liberty and, 170

  uprisings of, 158

  slave trade, 44, 49, 51, 54, 66, 79, 93, 96, 144, 152, 182, 199, 238–39, 286–87, 308

  Sleeping Beauty (Bella Durmiente), 45–46, 59–60, 107, 125, 127

  Slim, Carlos “El Turco,” 346

  smallpox, 14, 84–85, 151–52, 153, 374–75, 380

  Smith, Adam, 130, 131

  social inequality, 28, 98–99, 101–4, 129, 131–32, 189, 193–94, 196, 240–41, 243, 246, 254, 269, 291, 315, 319, 320–29, 357

  see also racism

  Socialism, 123, 161, 187, 188–89, 218, 228, 252, 291, 319

  Solano López, Francisco, 176

  Somoza Debayle, Anastasio, 220–21, 244

  Somoza García, Anastasio, 197–98

  South Africa, 182, 186

  Soviet Union, 161, 181–83, 190, 203, 205, 215, 221, 253

  Spain, 2, 7, 16, 22, 25, 39, 43–44, 50, 148–50, 167, 168–69, 195, 240, 252

  Catholicism’s power tied to, 71–72, 281, 301–3, 314, 324

  decline of, 12, 16, 163–65

  extent of dominion of, 71–72, 73, 83, 153–54

  under Ferdinand and Isabella, 39–44, 47–50, 54, 66, 148, 294

  historical perspective of violence in, 141–42, 238–41

  Napoleon’s invasion and conquest of, 102, 163–65

  royal scandal in, 163–65

  ultimate lack of prosperity in, 100

  vilification of, 287, 313, 429, 432

  Spanish Civil War, 160, 182, 252–54, 310, 338, 350, 423

  Spanish conquest, 13, 24, 30, 57, 69, 76, 93–94, 146, 274

  as clash of cultures, 258–59

  missionary goal as rationale for, 47, 54–55, 57, 58, 66, 71, 75, 255, 297–300

  Pope Francis’s apology for, 347

  roots of violence in, 2–4, 138–62, 189, 197, 238–43, 245

  see also conquistadors; specific conquests

  Spanish Inquisition, 42, 191, 307, 432

  Spanish language, 6, 303, 309, 310, 349

  Stalin, Joseph, 18, 211

  Standard Oil, 116

  starvation, 75, 77, 79, 161, 180, 206–7, 242, 380

  Stephen, Saint, 254

  stone, 161–64, 263–64

  as symbolic of Latin American religion, 3–4

  worship of, 256–64

  strikes, 121–24, 252, 254, 328

  Stroessner, Alfredo, 244, 339

  sugar industry, 115–16, 128, 148, 160–62, 179–81

  suicide, 153, 359

  Summit of the Americas, 120

  sun worship, 5, 20, 25, 35–37, 85, 256, 258, 265, 267, 300, 316, 318

  Supay, 4, 17, 35, 37


  superstitions, 29, 211, 346, 353

  Supreme Junta of Caracas Dedicated to Preserving the Rights of King Ferdinand VII, 168

  sword, as symbolic of Latin American violence, 2–3, 5

  Taft, William, 117

  Tafur, Juan, 80–81

  Tahuantinsuyu, 14, 20, 30–33, 36, 94, 122, 259

  Taíno people, 54–55, 138–39, 142, 144, 199, 284, 285, 299, 362, 380

  Tarapaya valley, 11, 14

  tatic (father), 341, 342, 343

  taxation, 102, 158, 305

  Tazco, Mexico, 24, 95, 386

  Tecún Uman, 14

  Tello, Julio C., 265

  Templo Mayor, 273, 426

  Tenochtitlán, 9, 23–30, 61–63, 142, 153, 255, 300

  Tenochtitlán, Battle of, 14, 68–71, 277–78, 298, 299

  Teotihuacán, 263

  Teresa of Ávila, Saint, 42

  terrorism, 121–22, 224, 225, 230, 354–55

  see also Shining Path; specific incidents

  Tetzel, Johann, 427

  textile industry, 155

  Tezcatlipoca, 277

  Theology of Liberation (Gutiérrez), 320

  Tierra del Fuego, violence in, 208–10

  Tikal, Guatemala, 265

  Tinku festival, 150

  tin mining, 254, 270

  Titicaca, Lake, 1, 11, 16, 19–20, 32, 127, 151

  Titu Kusi Yupanki, 89

  Tiwanaku people, 265

  Tlatelolco massacre, 189, 341

  tlatoani, 247–48

  Tlaxcalans, 69–70, 142, 278, 299

  Toledo, Francisco de, 97–98, 153

  Toledo, Spain, 83

  Toltecs, 264, 265, 277

  Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 379

  Torquemada, Tomás de, 42

  Torres, Camilo, 326

  Toscanelli, Paolo, 44, 48, 377

  “Toward a Theology of Liberation” (Alves), 320

  transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, 145, 351–53, 401, 443

  Transparency International, 243

  tres patas, las (three pillars of society), 349

  “Trial, The” (Argentine military government), 212

  Tribunal of the Inquisition, 148

  Triple A (Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance), 211–12

  Triple Alliance, Mexica, 26–27, 39

  Triple Alliance (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay), 176–77

  Trujillo, Rafael, 117, 198, 199–200, 203, 244, 394, 411

  tuhuneles (lay deacons), 340–42

  Tumbes, 32, 33, 81, 82, 85

  tun (stone; time), 260

  Tupac Amaru, Lord Inca, decapitation of, 153, 156, 158

  Tupac Amaru II, rebellion of, 156–58, 172, 230–31, 403

  Tupac Inca Yupanqui, 5, 21, 31, 309

  Twelfth Inca, prediction of, 34, 36

  Twelve Apostles of Mexico, 279, 287, 299–300

  United Fruit Company (Chiquita Brands International), 114–15, 217, 392

  United Nations, 217, 357

  United States, 104, 117, 222

  in Angola civil war, 184, 187, 190, 205

 

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