Silver, Sword, and Stone
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nature, in indigenous religions, 256–59, 264–67, 315–18, 346
Neruda, Pablo, 11, 93
Netherlands, 96, 97, 100, 286, 287, 331
New Granada, 155, 158
New Laws of the Indies, 288–89
Newmont Mining Corporation, 113, 122–24
New Spain, Viceroyalty of, 93
New Yorker, 216–17
Nicaragua, 49, 78, 117, 181, 188, 196–98, 220–22, 244, 286, 326, 330, 334, 341
Ninan Cuyochi, 32, 35–36
Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell), 101
“Ninety-Five Theses” (Luther), 281
Nixon, Richard, 119, 187–88, 191
Noriega, Manuel, 349
North America, 73, 125–29
indigenous tribes of, 104, 138, 142, 260, 344
“Northern Triangle” (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras), 216, 246
Oaxaca, 25
Obama, Barack, 119–20
Ochochoque, Juan Sixto:
miner’s lifestyle of, 17–18, 45–46, 107–10, 113, 125–26, 131, 248, 376
physical decline, illness, and death of, 3, 37–38, 114, 125–28, 272, 359
Ochochoque Gonzáles, Henrry, 128, 359
Ochochoque Gonzáles, Jhon, 125–28, 359
Ochochoque Gonzáles, Mariluz, 127, 128, 359
Ochochoque Gonzáles, Senna, 36, 127, 128, 337, 359
Odebrecht scandal, 243, 347, 446
Odría, Manuel, 293
O’Higgins, Bernardo, 192
oil industry, 116, 118, 128, 270, 353, 356, 443, 445
Ojibwe people, 260
oligarchies, 220, 223–24
Olmecs, 256, 261, 263, 265
Olmedo, Bartolomé de, 299
Olympic Games (Summer, 1968), 189
Ometeotl, 279
Oñate, Juan de, 154
One Hundred Years of Solitude (García Márquez), 115
Open Veins of Latin America (Galeano), 276
opium, in drug trade, 173
oral histories, 19
Orellana, Francisco de, 73
Organization of American States, 124, 203
orisha gods, 315
Ortega, Daniel, 326, 360
Orwell, George, 101, 361
Osorio, Carlos Arana, 187–88
Ospina, Mariano, 203
Ottoman Empire, 14
Ovando, Nicolás de, 54–55, 73, 76, 83
Pachacamac, 92
Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui, Inca emperor (Pachacuti, or Pachacutiq Inka Yupanki), 5, 21, 149, 273
Pachacuti (revolutionary change), 227, 254, 269, 330
Pachamama, 4, 18, 105–7, 150, 151, 257, 315
Pacific Ocean, 56–57, 73, 105, 196, 282, 300
Páez, José Antonio, 244
Paine, Thomas, 167, 170
palabreros, 147–48
pallaqueo (hunt for gold), 1, 127
pallaqueras (rock spill scavengers), 46, 125
Panama, 22, 49, 56, 57, 63, 74–80, 82, 171, 201, 222, 242, 243, 260, 261, 286, 300, 349
Panama Canal, U.S. control of, 201, 203
Pan American Conference, 203
Paraguay, 147, 171, 174–77, 213, 244, 261, 270, 273, 291, 295, 311, 339, 346, 350
Patagonia, 209–10
Paul IV, Pope, 96
Paz, Octavio, 133, 194, 346
Paz Estenssoro, Victor, 270
Pearl Islands, 74, 77
Penn, William, 199
Pentacostalism, 4, 329, 330, 335–36
Pentland, Joseph Barclay, 15–17, 37
People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 182
Pérez, Juan, 297
Pérez, Louis, 400, 401
Perón, Eva Duarte “Evita,” 211, 251, 254, 267–68
Perón, Isabel, 211–12
Perón, Juan, 211, 244, 349, 358, 360
Peru, 12, 16, 20–21, 93, 108–13, 132, 155–58, 167, 171, 181, 189, 209, 214, 224, 227, 243, 244, 270, 289–90, 293–95, 347, 353
author’s family roots in, 7–8, 241, 274, 389, 437
map, xiii
mining in, 1–4, 92, 108–113, 120, 148; see also specific mines
Pizarro’s conquest of, 73–96, 109, 151–54, 290
postrevolutionary political chaos in, 103, 177–78
as source of silver, 71, 72, 75, 82
violence in, 2, 135, 225–32, 239, 241, 247
Xavier’s mission in, 293–94
Peruvian Armed Forces, 231–32
Pétion, Alexandre, 169
Philip II, king of Spain and Holy Roman emperor, 97, 289–90, 303, 403
Philippines, 72, 93
Pillars of Hercules, 39, 43, 71
Pinochet, Augusto, 5, 119, 188–89, 214, 244, 354, 358, 446
pirates, piracy, 43, 83, 96, 165, 199
Pirú (indigenous leader as well as mythical region), 75, 77, 78, 81–82, 84, 300
Pius II, Pope, 43
Pius IX, Pope, 322
Pius XII, Pope, 268
Pizarro, Francisco, 2, 53, 57, 74, 75–76, 80, 82, 84, 88–89, 93, 147, 289, 300–301, 358, 431
and Atahualpa, 73, 85–90, 114, 122, 297, 301
discoveries and conquests of, 14, 73–96, 109, 151–54, 241, 255, 300–301, 349, 362, 388
Pizarro, Gonzalo, 289, 301, 401
Pizarro, Hernando, 86, 92, 301
Pizarro, Juan, 301
plagues, 13, 34–36, 66, 85
see also specific diseases
Platt Amendment, 169
Plaza de Mayo, demonstration for the disappeared in, 211
“Plus Ultra” motto, 71, 100
Politics (Aristotle), 288
Polo, Marco, 46–47
Pol Pot, 229
Popol Vuh, 264–65
Popular Front, 252–53
Porco, Bolivia, 11, 13–14, 94
Portugal, 49, 50, 141–42, 164, 182, 189, 242, 286, 295, 311
Brazil under, 93, 102, 141, 239, 347
in quest for mineral wealth, 43–44, 46, 67, 75
Potosí, silver mining boom and bust in, 11–15, 16, 93–100, 102, 112, 271, 276, 289, 292, 327
poverty, 173, 189, 216, 226, 241, 245–46, 325, 328, 330, 353, 357, 446
addressed by Church, 320, 323, 333
four spiritual initiatives on, 328–29
of miners’ lifestyle, 17–18, 112–13, 125–27
after revolution, 194, 315
Power of Gold, The (Bernstein), 121
Princeton University, 320
printing presses, 148, 281, 308
prison riots, 231
prosperity theology, 336
prostitution, 4, 112–13, 392
Protector of the Indians, Las Casas as, 285
Protestantism, 12, 100, 281, 317, 330, 343
threat to Catholic Church from, 4, 330
see also Evangelical Protestant movements
Protestant Reformation, 71, 78, 281, 290, 296, 427
Pueblo rebellion (1680), 154–55
pundonor (pride), 293, 300
Pyramid of the Sun, 265
pyramids, 261, 263, 265, 272, 425
Quechua language, 30, 33, 88, 124, 260–61, 269, 291, 292, 293, 311–12, 348–49
Quechua people, 226–27, 232, 262, 309, 319, 327, 328, 338, 347, 360
Quetzalcoatl, 64, 266, 381–82
Quillacingas tribe, 32
Quiriguá, monoliths at, 263
Quiroga, Pedro de, 319
Quispe, Leon, 392
Quito, 30–37, 168, 211, 293–94
Quito rebellion (1765), 155
race wars, 156–58, 196, 231
racial identity:
in author’s family, 345, 356
language of, 345–46, 403
of Latin American countries, 441
racial mixing, 7, 154, 240, 344–45
racial purity, 29–31, 141
racism, 96, 102–4, 173–74, 184, 309, 321, 325, 326, 344
legacy of, 189, 290–91, 321, 344–47
Spanish-born dominion in, 101–4, 1
29, 148–49, 165, 345
supremacy of whites in, 7, 96, 103, 117, 124, 128, 129, 131, 147, 148, 154, 159, 165, 173, 178–79, 193, 195, 210, 226, 240–41, 268–70, 288, 291, 293, 302, 308, 313, 314, 315, 319, 341, 343–47
violence of, 156–58, 200, 240
against whites, 154–55, 174, 199, 231
rain forests, 110, 262
Raleigh, Walter, 140
Rangel, Carlos, 354
ransoms, 212, 216, 221
rape, 90, 219, 225, 307
Ratzinger, Joseph, see Benedict XVI, Pope
raza cósmica, la (Cosmic Race), 345
Razón de Mi Vida, La (E. Perón), 268
Reagan, Ronald, 213, 216, 220–22
rebellion:
of Creoles, 165–66
historical roots of, 151–58
of indigenous people, 31, 32, 139, 151, 154–58
of Tupac Amaru II, 156–58, 172, 230–31
see also revolutions, Latin American
reconquista, la (Latin America), 169
Reconquista (Spain), 41
reducciones (Jesuit settlements), 295–96, 302–3
reductions (resettlements), 3, 94, 97–99, 307
religion:
in Latin American culture, 3–8, 249–350, 361–62
global decline in, 330–31
indigenous, see indigenous religions
see also specific theologies
repartimiento de mercancía, 119
requerimiento, 88, 282, 284
Revolución y contrarevolución (Kruijt), 220
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), 2, 224–25, 355, 418
Revolutionary Party, 218
revolutions, Latin American, 294, 324
of Bolívar, 166–72
Church weakened and recast after, 313–19
death toll and despoliation of, 171, 194, 314
dictatorship as legacy of, 177–78, 192–222, 243–44, 360
end of, 16, 116, 314
failure to effect change in aftermath of, 129, 173, 193
historical roots of, 101–4, 151–58, 223, 313–14
Latin American psyche shaped by, 163–91
political upheaval following, 101, 103, 174–77, 192–94
prelude to, 269–70, 313–14
proliferation of, 168–69
reforms after, 270
Spain expelled by, 102–3, 166–72, 178, 238, 305, 314
violence in, 2–3, 168–71, 172–91, 238, 245, 314
see also specific movements and leaders
Rights of Man (Paine), 170
Ríos Montt, Efraín, 219–20, 244
Rockefeller, John D., 116
Roman Empire, 277
Romero, Óscar, 217, 333–34, 341, 358
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 117, 159, 394
Roosevelt, Theodore, 198, 201, 411
Root (radical organization), 342
Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 182, 244
Rosenberg, Tina, 210
Royal Audience of Quito, 166
Royal Dutch Shell, 116
royal fifth, 58, 59, 82–83, 100
rubber industry, 116–17, 392
Ruiz, Bartolomé, 79–80
Ruíz, Samuel “Red Bishop,” indigenous advocacy of, 340–43
Sabato, Ernesto, 177, 244
Sahagún, Bernardino de, 308, 348
Saint Peter, Basilica of, 71, 281
Sandinistas, 221
Sandino, Augusto, 197–98, 221
San Jorge de Mina (Ghana), 43
San Juan River, 74, 78
San Martín, José de, 171
Santa Anna, Antonio López de, 192, 194–95, 244, 410
Santa Barbara mercury mines, 99, 389
Santa Fe de Bogotá, 145
Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, Pueblo rebellion in, 154–55
Santa María settlement, 56
Santayana, George, 136–37, 232
Santería, 207, 235, 315
Santiago, 77
Santo Domingo, 14, 49, 55, 200
Santo Domingo, Church of, 38
secret police, 213–14
Selk’nam people, 209–10
Seneca, 46
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 121–22
Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 288, 308
Serapis, Temple of, 277
Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), 2, 3, 45, 226–32, 244, 247, 343, 355, 418
silver, 13, 15, 20, 28, 40–41, 45, 47, 66, 71, 72, 75, 82, 83, 85, 92, 93–100, 101–4, 105, 109, 121, 128, 130, 131, 153, 179, 223, 270, 328
as symbolic of Latin American mineral wealth, 2
silver mining, 96, 99, 126
boom and bust in, 11–15
proliferation of, 25–26, 94–100
Sistine Chapel, ceiling of, 282
slaves, slavery, 117, 197, 198
African, 81, 93–96, 103, 104, 116, 125, 141, 162, 386
Aristotle’s theory of, 288
Columbus’s participation in, 51, 54
emancipation of, 168–71
ended in Latin America, 285
in indigenous civilizations, 25, 31, 138, 298
indigenous Latin Americans as, 49, 56–58, 61–62, 65, 74, 76, 81, 84, 90, 103, 139–41, 144, 283–85, 294–96, 307, 309, 311, 335
in North America, 125, 171
paradox of liberty and, 170
uprisings of, 158
slave trade, 44, 49, 51, 54, 66, 79, 93, 96, 144, 152, 182, 199, 238–39, 286–87, 308
Sleeping Beauty (Bella Durmiente), 45–46, 59–60, 107, 125, 127
Slim, Carlos “El Turco,” 346
smallpox, 14, 84–85, 151–52, 153, 374–75, 380
Smith, Adam, 130, 131
social inequality, 28, 98–99, 101–4, 129, 131–32, 189, 193–94, 196, 240–41, 243, 246, 254, 269, 291, 315, 319, 320–29, 357
see also racism
Socialism, 123, 161, 187, 188–89, 218, 228, 252, 291, 319
Solano López, Francisco, 176
Somoza Debayle, Anastasio, 220–21, 244
Somoza García, Anastasio, 197–98
South Africa, 182, 186
Soviet Union, 161, 181–83, 190, 203, 205, 215, 221, 253
Spain, 2, 7, 16, 22, 25, 39, 43–44, 50, 148–50, 167, 168–69, 195, 240, 252
Catholicism’s power tied to, 71–72, 281, 301–3, 314, 324
decline of, 12, 16, 163–65
extent of dominion of, 71–72, 73, 83, 153–54
under Ferdinand and Isabella, 39–44, 47–50, 54, 66, 148, 294
historical perspective of violence in, 141–42, 238–41
Napoleon’s invasion and conquest of, 102, 163–65
royal scandal in, 163–65
ultimate lack of prosperity in, 100
vilification of, 287, 313, 429, 432
Spanish Civil War, 160, 182, 252–54, 310, 338, 350, 423
Spanish conquest, 13, 24, 30, 57, 69, 76, 93–94, 146, 274
as clash of cultures, 258–59
missionary goal as rationale for, 47, 54–55, 57, 58, 66, 71, 75, 255, 297–300
Pope Francis’s apology for, 347
roots of violence in, 2–4, 138–62, 189, 197, 238–43, 245
see also conquistadors; specific conquests
Spanish Inquisition, 42, 191, 307, 432
Spanish language, 6, 303, 309, 310, 349
Stalin, Joseph, 18, 211
Standard Oil, 116
starvation, 75, 77, 79, 161, 180, 206–7, 242, 380
Stephen, Saint, 254
stone, 161–64, 263–64
as symbolic of Latin American religion, 3–4
worship of, 256–64
strikes, 121–24, 252, 254, 328
Stroessner, Alfredo, 244, 339
sugar industry, 115–16, 128, 148, 160–62, 179–81
suicide, 153, 359
Summit of the Americas, 120
sun worship, 5, 20, 25, 35–37, 85, 256, 258, 265, 267, 300, 316, 318
Supay, 4, 17, 35, 37
superstitions, 29, 211, 346, 353
Supreme Junta of Caracas Dedicated to Preserving the Rights of King Ferdinand VII, 168
sword, as symbolic of Latin American violence, 2–3, 5
Taft, William, 117
Tafur, Juan, 80–81
Tahuantinsuyu, 14, 20, 30–33, 36, 94, 122, 259
Taíno people, 54–55, 138–39, 142, 144, 199, 284, 285, 299, 362, 380
Tarapaya valley, 11, 14
tatic (father), 341, 342, 343
taxation, 102, 158, 305
Tazco, Mexico, 24, 95, 386
Tecún Uman, 14
Tello, Julio C., 265
Templo Mayor, 273, 426
Tenochtitlán, 9, 23–30, 61–63, 142, 153, 255, 300
Tenochtitlán, Battle of, 14, 68–71, 277–78, 298, 299
Teotihuacán, 263
Teresa of Ávila, Saint, 42
terrorism, 121–22, 224, 225, 230, 354–55
see also Shining Path; specific incidents
Tetzel, Johann, 427
textile industry, 155
Tezcatlipoca, 277
Theology of Liberation (Gutiérrez), 320
Tierra del Fuego, violence in, 208–10
Tikal, Guatemala, 265
Tinku festival, 150
tin mining, 254, 270
Titicaca, Lake, 1, 11, 16, 19–20, 32, 127, 151
Titu Kusi Yupanki, 89
Tiwanaku people, 265
Tlatelolco massacre, 189, 341
tlatoani, 247–48
Tlaxcalans, 69–70, 142, 278, 299
Toledo, Francisco de, 97–98, 153
Toledo, Spain, 83
Toltecs, 264, 265, 277
Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 379
Torquemada, Tomás de, 42
Torres, Camilo, 326
Toscanelli, Paolo, 44, 48, 377
“Toward a Theology of Liberation” (Alves), 320
transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, 145, 351–53, 401, 443
Transparency International, 243
tres patas, las (three pillars of society), 349
“Trial, The” (Argentine military government), 212
Tribunal of the Inquisition, 148
Triple A (Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance), 211–12
Triple Alliance, Mexica, 26–27, 39
Triple Alliance (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay), 176–77
Trujillo, Rafael, 117, 198, 199–200, 203, 244, 394, 411
tuhuneles (lay deacons), 340–42
Tumbes, 32, 33, 81, 82, 85
tun (stone; time), 260
Tupac Amaru, Lord Inca, decapitation of, 153, 156, 158
Tupac Amaru II, rebellion of, 156–58, 172, 230–31, 403
Tupac Inca Yupanqui, 5, 21, 31, 309
Twelfth Inca, prediction of, 34, 36
Twelve Apostles of Mexico, 279, 287, 299–300
United Fruit Company (Chiquita Brands International), 114–15, 217, 392
United Nations, 217, 357
United States, 104, 117, 222
in Angola civil war, 184, 187, 190, 205