A Heroic King

by Helena P. Schrader

  In the post-Leonidas era, however, helot hopes and expectations must have been abruptly shattered, leading to the explosive situation that culminated in the revolt. This is another reason why I have postulated a conservative faction in Spartiate society that, after the death of Leonidas and his closest companions at Thermopylae, takes control of the Spartan government. We certainly know that Pausanias was not a paragon of virtue nor popular for long, while Leotychidas’ performance was consistently dismal.

  The historical justification for including a chapter with Gorgo in Athens is found in Plutarch’s “Sayings of Spartan Women.” On the one hand, Plutarch records that “a stranger in a finely embroidered robe” made advances to her, earning the rebuke that he “couldn’t even play a female role.” While a stranger might have been in Sparta and (somewhat incredibly) risked making advances to the Spartan queen, Gorgo could hardly have retorted with a reference to “playing a female role” based on experience in Sparta alone. Sparta had no theater at this time. If Gorgo rebuffed an importunate stranger by implying he looked like an actor playing a female role in a play, her remark implies that she had seen drama performed elsewhere―presumably in Athens, where theater was becoming popular at this time.

  More convincing, however, is the fact that Gorgo’s famous quip about Spartan women being the only ones who gave birth to men was, according to Plutarch, in answer to “a woman from Attica.” Since women from Attica weren’t supposed to be seen outside the women’s quarters of their own homes, it is far more likely that Gorgo was in Attica (Athens) than that an Athenian woman was in Sparta. Together, these quotes gave me the courage to add a chapter with Gorgo in Athens, because I think it is important to remind readers about the deplorable status of Athenian women. The misogyny of ancient Athens is one of the most despicable of its qualities, and should not be brushed aside or ignored.

  The account of Thermopylae in this novel is based first and foremost on Herodotus. I follow his very explicit statement that Leonidas and his three hundred were sent “in advance of the main army” (Histories, 7:206), and I have seen no convincing evidence that Leonidas was abandoned or betrayed by his home government, as many modern accounts suggest. According to Herodotus, “The intention was, when the Karneia was over (for it was that festival that prevented the Spartans from taking the field in the ordinary way), to leave a garrison in the city and march with all the troops at their disposal” (Histories, 7:206). He explicitly states that the only thing that prevented the planned deployment of the full Spartan army was the fall of Thermopylae much sooner than expected.

  Herodotus tells us about the four-day delay before the Persians attacked, during which a Persian scout observed the Spartans exercising naked and combing their hair, which Herodotus claims induced Xerxes to send for Demaratus. Allegedly, Demaratus explained that this was “normal” for the Spartans when preparing to fight. Note that Herodotus’ Demaratus says the Spartans were preparing to fight, not to die. There is absolutely no evidence in Herodotus that Leonidas or his men viewed their deployment as a suicide mission that would inevitably end in death for all.

  Herodotus records that Xerxes waited four days before attacking and that, losing his patience on the fifth day, he sent the Medes in to clear the Pass, in expectation of easy victory. Herodotus claims Xerxes sent the Cissians in after the Medes failed, and then ordered the Immortals into the Pass late on the first day, after the Persian troops had suffered very serious casualties in heavy, all-day fighting. The tradition that Xerxes had a throne set up so he could watch the battle and that he jumped up three times in the course of the day “in terror for his army” also goes back to Herodotus’ account (Histories, 7:212). Herodotus states explicitly that the Spartans “had their losses, too, but not many.” He also describes the fighting in relays by city-state, and provides no details of the second day beyond that it was like the first, with heavy losses for the Persians.

  Notably, Herodotus claims the Spartans employed various “feints” to outfight their “inexperienced” enemy. Unfortunately, the only one he describes is that the Spartans would “turn their backs in a body and pretend to be retreating in confusion, whereupon the enemy would pursue them with a great clatter and roar, but the Spartans, just as the Persians were on them, would wheel and face them and inflict in the new struggle innumerable casualties” (Histories, 7:212). While experts on hoplite warfare doubt that this maneuver is possible, I prefer to follow Herodotus, who wrote his account in the same century that Leonidas died and after interviewing survivors of the Persian wars.

  Herodotus explicitly states that Leonidas fought further forward on the third day than on the two previous days, but the wheeling motion I describe on the third day of the battle is not explicitly described. It may well be too complicated for hoplite warfare at this time. On the other hand, it is only when describing the third day of battle that Herodotus explicitly mentions that many Persians “fell into the sea” (Histories, 7:223). This inspired me to imagine a slightly different tactic than used previously―if only to enliven the storytelling.

  Herodotus also makes no mention of the night raid, but other ancient sources refer to it. It seemed a very logical thing for Leonidas to order, once he realized that his position was at risk and that he might not be able to fulfill his mission of holding the Pass until the full Spartan army could deploy. More important, it makes for a great story. I couldn’t resist including it.

  According to Herodotus, “There was a bitter struggle over the body of Leonidas; four times the Greeks drove the enemy off, and at last by their valor rescued it.” This account has been challenged by modern historians, who feel it is too reminiscent of the Iliad. Maybe. But Leonidas’ men were raised on the Iliad and saw themselves as the heirs of the Iliad’s heroes. I think that as Leonidas’ friends and subjects, they would have felt compelled by the tradition of the Iliad to retain control of his corpse for as long as they had breath in them.

  Herodotus records the fate of Aristodemos (the only survivor) and Eurytus, who fought blind. He says the bravest Spartans, after Leonidas himself, were Dienekes (who is sometimes credited with the remark about “fighting in the shade”) and the brothers Alpheus and Maron. The bravest Thespian, he says, was Dithyrambus, but the Thespians were commanded by Demophilus (Histories, 7:222). The fact that Xerxes ordered Leonidas’ head displayed on a stake for his entire army to see as they marched past is also a detail provided by Herodotus. There would have been hundreds of thousands of witnesses of this fact (unlike many other details Herodotus includes), and so this detail can be considered verified history, more than almost anything else in his entire account.

  GLOSSARY OF GREEK TERMS

  Agoge The Spartan public school, attended by all boys from the ages of seven through twenty and by girls for a shorter time–probably from seven until they had their first period. The agoge was infamous throughout Greece for its harshness, discipline, and austerity, however, not–as many modern historians would have us think–for the exclusion of literacy, the arts, or intellectual training from the curriculum. On the contrary, ancient commentators claimed that “devotion to the intellect is more characteristic of Sparta than love of physical exercise.” Furthermore, although the children lived in barracks, they were also introduced to democracy early by being organized into herds, or packs, which elected their leaders. Nor, as many modern sources suggest, were the children attending the agoge completely cut off from their families. They probably went home on holidays (of which there were at least twelve, each lasting several days), and would have been able to see their parents in the city almost any day. Sparta was a small society, and the agoge was in the middle of it.

  Andron The chamber in a private house where symposia were held. It was often provided with permanent benches or shelves built against the walls for the guests to recline upon.

  Aspis The round shield used by Greek heavy infantry. Often also referred to as the hoplon .

  Chiton The basic undergarment worn by both men and w
omen. It could be long or short, belted or unbelted, sleeveless or sleeved, and bound at one or both shoulders. Slaves usually wore it clasped only on one shoulder, and short chitons for mature men were also associated with “unfree” status.

  Cithara An ancient stringed instrument.

  Eirene A Spartan youth, aged twenty, on the brink of citizenship and serving as an instructor in the agoge.

  Ephors Executives of the Spartan government elected from among the citizen body for one year. Any citizen could be elected ephor, but no citizen could serve in this capacity for longer than one term.

  Enomotia A unit of between thirty-two and forty men in the Spartan army, commanded by an enomotarch.

  Gerousia The Council of Elders in Sparta. This body consisted of twenty-eight elected members and the two kings. The elected members had to have attained the age of sixty and were then elected for life. Although this institution was highly praised by commentators from other parts of Greece, who saw in the Council of Elders a check upon the fickleness of the Assembly, the senility of some Council members and the “notorious” timidity of the Council were often a source of frustration among younger Spartans.

  Helots The rural population of Lacedaemon, descended from the original settlers of the area. Helots were not slaves.

  Hetaera In Athens, an expensive whore, patronized by the very rich. Hetaerae were the only women allowed to take part in symposia. The majority of hetaerae were slaves, pimped by their masters

  Himation The long, rectangular wrap used by both men and women as an outer garment.

  Hippagretai Three men appointed each year by the ephors as company commanders in the royal guard. Each of the three men selected one hundred men to serve in their respective company.

  Hippeis The “Knights” or Guard, a three hundred strong unit of young Spartiates (aged 21-30), chosen by the hippagretai. They served as the personal bodyguard of the Spartan kings when on campaign and appear to have also fulfilled certain police functions inside Lacedaemon. Appointment to the Guard was very prestigious but not permanent. The appointments were made annually, guardsmen had to maintain their reputation throughout the year to ensure reappointment. Presumably a change in commander might also result in a change in Guard composition.

  Hoplite A Greek heavy infantryman.

  Hoplon The full kit of a Greek heavy infantryman, including armor, greaves, aspis, spear, and sword. Often used interchangeably with aspis, however, to refer to the round shield only.

  Hydria A pitcher for water.

  Keleustes The officer aboard a Greek warship who commanded the rowers, watching for problems, relaying orders, and the like. These men held a very important position requiring a great deal of skill, and were in some ways more “professional” than the captains, who were simply men drawn from the upper classes, often for their ability to finance the construction of a ship. The keleustes, along with the helmsmen and bowman, were the “mates” or “officers” of ancient ships.

  Kleros The land allotment granted each Spartan citizen on maturity as a result of the Lycurgan reforms. A kleros was allegedly large enough to provide for a man and his immediate family, and according to tradition there were originally six thousand of these allotments. Another three thousand were added in the sixth century as the population grew. Since not all kleros were equally productive and since property could apparently be bought and inherited, increasing inequalities of wealth were inevitable.

  Kothon A drinking vessel similar to a modern mug, distinctive to Sparta. In most of Greece, drinking cups had two handles; in Sparta, just one.

  Krater A large jar of pottery or bronze for mixing water and wine to the desired level of alcoholic content.

  Kylix A drinking vessel with a low, shallow bowl on a short stem. These could be quite large, requiring two hands to hold, and were often passed around at a symposium.

  Lacedaemon The correct designation of the ancient Greek city-state of which Sparta was the capital. Lacedaemon consisted originally of only the Eurotas valley in the Peloponnese, Laconia. In the late eighth century BC, the valley to the west, Messenia, was captured and remained part of Lacedaemon until the fourth century BC. There were a number of other cities and towns in Lacedaemon, but the bulk of these were inhabited by perioikoi rather than Spartiates. The Spartiates were concentrated in Sparta, because of the requirement of attending the messes (syssitia) on a nightly basis.

  Lochagos/Lochagoi The commander of a lochos; lochagoi is the plural form.

  Lochos The main subdivision of the Spartan army, variously compared to a battalion, regiment, or division. It had an estimated peacetime strength of four hundred men and a maximum strength (full call-up of fifteen classes of reserves) of one thousand men.

  Meleirene A Spartan youth, aged nineteen, about to become an eirene, and two years from citizenship.

  Metoikoi/Metics In Athens, free men living in the city but not enjoying citizenship status. They were subject to special taxes and were in need of an Athenian patron in order to be registered. Anyone living in Athens more than a month without being registered was liable to be arrested and sold into slavery.

  Mothakes In Sparta, youths from families too poor to pay the agoge fees, who were sponsored by other Spartiates. The status carried no stigma after attaining citizenship, and many famous Spartans, including Lysander, were mothakes.

  Paidagogos In Athens, a man, usually a slave, responsible for looking after school-aged boys–essentially escorting them daily to the grammar master, the singing master, and the palaestra or gymnasium.

  Paidonomos The headmaster of the Spartan agoge.

  Palaestra A public place for exercise, particularly wrestling.

  Penteconter A single-decked, fifty-oared Greek warship, predecessor of the trireme.

  Pentekostus A unit of one hundred to two hundred men in the Spartan army; similar to a company in the army today, and hence often referred to as such in this series of novels.

  Peplos The most common indoor garment worn by women in Sparta at this period. It was basically a single rectangular cloth, folded vertically in half and sewn up the open side. It was held up by clasps over one shoulder or–if a hole for the second arm was made in the folded side–by clasps at each shoulder. Spartan women continued to wear this garment after it was out of fashion elsewhere, and the fact that it was left open from the thigh down for greater ease of motion earned them the (derogatory) epithet of “thigh throwers.”

  Peristyle A courtyard surrounded on all sides by a colonnaded walkway.

  Perioikoi A non-citizen resident of Lacedaemon. Like the helots, the perioikoi were descendants of the non-Greek native population of the area prior to the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese in roughly 900 BC. The perioikoi enjoyed free status and ran their own affairs in their own towns and cities, but had no independent state, military, or foreign policy. The perioikoi–like the metics in other Greek cities–were required to pay taxes to the Lacedaemonian authorities. They also provided auxiliary troops to the Spartan army. Since Spartiates were prohibited from pursuing any profession or trade other than arms, the perioikoi had a (very lucrative) monopoly on all trade and manufacturing in Lacedaemon.

  Phouxir The “fox time,” a period during a Spartan youth’s upbringing when he was required to live “off the land” and outside of society. I have chosen to place this period at the end of boyhood and before youth and to fix the duration at forty days. Some historians believe it lasted as long as a year. It was during–and only during–this period that stealing by the boys was tolerated by society. Otherwise it was considered demeaning, although obviously a skill once learned could be used again if detection was avoided.

  Pilos A felt cap worn under the Greek battle helmet or as a head covering against the cold. It was often worn by helot attendants without helmets.

  Polemarch A military commander.

  Spartiate A full Spartan citizen: that is, the legitimate son of a Spartan citizen, who successfully completed the agoge, served as an eirene, an
d was admitted to a syssitia on coming of age.

  Stade The length of the Olympic stadium, used to measure distances in ancient Greece.

  Stoa An open, roofed area supported by columns. In its simplest form, it is little more than a portico built against a building. More elaborate structures, such as Pausanias describes in his travel guide to Greece, might have several rows of pillars. They could be round or rectangular in shape.

  Symposium A dinner or drinking party, popular in Athens. They could include intellectual discourse or be characterized by erotic entertainment and excessive drinking―or both.

  Syssitia Spartan messes or dining clubs. Adult Spartiates were all required to join one of the many existing syssitia when they attained citizenship at age twenty-one. Thereafter, they were required to dine at these messes nightly unless excused for such things as military duty, athletic competition, or hunting. The existing members of each syssitia had to vote unanimously in favor of an applicant before he could be accepted. Recent research suggests that membership in the various syssitia may have been based on family ties or clan relationships, but this is not certain. They were not, however, merely military messes based on military units, and they were explicitly designed to encourage men of different age cohorts to interact. Each member was required to make set contributions in kind (grain, wine, oil, and so on) and was expected to make other gifts, particularly game, in accordance with their means. Failure to pay the fees was grounds for loss of citizenship, and failure to attend the meals without a valid excuse could result in fines or other sanctions.