31. This passage is somewhat problematic, and the modern translators-both Chinese and Japanese-tend to elide portions of it. The general intent appears to be that by delaying his emissaries, they will appear to have been remiss in their duties, particularly when their replacements quickly succeed in their missions. (The commentators generally take yen as meaning "be extremely respectful toward" or "treat generously," as translated, but this seems forced, and the text may be corrupt.) Subsequently, the recently estranged officials can be used to further political objectives by playing on their disaffection and satisfying their greed. (Cf. LT CS, pp. 77-78; TKLT CCCY, p. 93; and Okada Osamu, Rikuto, pp. 70-71.)
32. This passage reflects fundamental concepts found in the Tao Te Ching, especially in Chapter 36.
33. Various interpretations are offered for how these three methods are to be employed against themselves: Increasing someone's strength stimulates him to arrogance; favored officials can best be employed to cast doubt on loyal ministers; and successfully attracting the allegiance of population segments will prove infectious, drawing ever-increasing numbers of disaffected souls. However, other possibilities obviously exist. (Cf. TKLT CCCY, pp. 102-103.)
34. The analogy comparing people with cows and horses is highly unusual and appears to suggest that if the ruler provides for the people, they will docilely follow and love him-just like horses and cattle. However, the commentators understand the sentence as translated; the ruler should follow his bestowal of material goods with more abstract measures. (Cf. LT CS, p. 82; TKLT CCCY, p. 105 [note that "the people are like cows and horses" has dropped out of the text]; and Okada Osamu, Rikuto, p. 80.)
35. The names of some terms, such as Fu-hsin, or "belly-heart" (indicating a close relationship, close confidants), in some cases are best left romanized with approximate functional equivalents indicated in brackets.
36. Their positions apparently integrated the functions of both astrologers and weather forecasters, casting an eye equally toward the interpretation of natural phenomena and the indications of baleful and auspicious moments.
37. Literally, "secret-pennants-drums."
38. All these terms probably derive from, or at least are common to, Sun-tzu's Art of War.
39. The first words from Chapter 1, "Initial Estimations," the Art of War (later echoed in Questions and Replies and many other military writings). Sun-tzu discusses the general's qualifications in this and other chapters.
40. Another quotation from the Art of War, Chapter 3, "Strategies for Attack."
41. Fu and yueh axes in bronze date from at least the Shang dynasty, and stone precursors have also been discovered. Although the yueh axe is frequently described as a larger version of the fu (such as by Chou Wei in his Chung-kuo ping-ch'i shih-kao, (Ming-wen shu-chi, Taipei, 1981, p. 106), based on archaeological discoveries of numerous examples, there are additional class distinctions. The fu frequently resembles a wood-splitter's ax, with the shaft passing through a hole in the upper portion. The yueh resembles a Western executioner's great ax, with a wide, curved blade and a head fastened by binding the tang to the shaft. It symbolized power and authority-particularly the authority to conduct punitive expeditions-and was also employed for actual executions. (For examples and discussion, consult Ch'eng Tung and Chung Shao-i, eds., Chung-kuo ku-tai ping-ch'i t'u-chi, Chieh-fang-chun ch'u-pan-she, Peking, 1990.)
42. "Vacuity" (deficiencies, weaknesses, voids) and "substance" (strength) are probably derived from Sun-tzu's Art of War, Chapter 6, "Vacuity and Substance."
43. These practices are strongly associated with the historical Wu Ch'i and are frequently found in the military writings. (For further discussion, see the translator's inroduction and notes to the Wu-tzu.)
44. This ceremony is reviewed by Li Ching on behalf of T'ang T'ai-tsung in Book III of Questions and Replies.
45. The title of this chapter, "Yin-fu," is identical with a cryptic book associated with the T'ai Kung's name, although nominally attributed to the legendary Yellow Emperor. AYin-fu ching, with commentaries by other military figures such as the mysterious Kuei Ku-tzu, is presently found in the Taoist canon. However, its contents are unrelated to the material discussed in "Secret Tallies," and the brief text probably bears no relation to the T'ai Kung.
46. Because this chapter goes on to explicitly discuss military communications between the ruler and his generals, the sentence is translated as "I want to communicate" rather than "my general wants to communicate." (This differs from the start of Chapter 25, for which see note 47. Also observe the active role presumably being played by the ruler, King Wu, in directing the army, in contrast to the rise of professional commanders and the growing advocacy and acceptance of the principle of noninterference in the Spring and Autumn period. The text is clearly anachronistic in this regard because Sun-tzu and other chapters such as "Appointing the General" emphasize the general's necessary independence.)
47. Here the text clearly reads "the commanding general."
48. Echoes Lao-tzu, Tao Te Ching, Chapter 1.
49. These sentences appear to be misplaced. Although the referents are not specified, "plans," "deployment," "situation," and similar aspects of intelligence are clearly intended and thus are variously interpolated by the commentators.
50. Defeating them before they have deployed their forces and manifested themselves. This echoes Lao-tzu's Chapter 64.
51. As Sun-tzu advises in Art of War, Chapter 11, "Nine Terrains."
52. The image of attacking from above the Heavens, secreting oneself below Earth, is frequently found, however, in the military writings, including the Art of War.
53. This appears to be an application of Sun-tzu's principle to throw the men into a desperate position in which there is no defense except fighting to the death.
54. The concept of unorthodox (ch'i) tactics, made prominent by Sun-tzu and still a focal topic in Questions and Replies, barely appears in the Six Secret Teachings except for this chapter and an occasional reference in chapters that clearly describe unorthodox tactics-although not explicitly so named-such as the "Crow and Cloud Formation in the Mountains." However, much of the material in the last four secret teachings clearly falls within the category of unorthodox tactics-especially Chapter 51, "Dispersing and Assembling," which essentially amplifies the principle: "One who cannot divide and move [his troops about] cannot be spoken with about unorthodox strategies." (The entire paragraph actually paraphrases Sun-tzu.) Why the authors of the Six Secret Teachings failed to include such discussions, particularly after Sun Pin had further developed the application of unorthodox tactics and the cavalry had provided the mobility that made the realization of these tactics possible, remains unknown. (For a discussion of the unorthodox and orthodox, see the notes to the translator's introduction for the Art of War.)
55. The "moment" (chi), the subtle shifting of events.
56. For a discussion of the five notes and their correlation with other phenomena associated with the five phases, see Joseph Needham et al., Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1962, pp. 216-268.
57. The Sung edition and the modern LT CS include an additional phrase not found in the Ming edition, "by which one can know the enemy."
58. "Six chia" is variously understood by the traditional commentators. (Unfortunately, the modern Chinese translations-such as the LT CS edition-either ignore the difficulty or, as Hsu Pei-ken in his CCCY edition, deprecate the chapter as being a late interpolation of the yin-yang school and thus apparently not worth translating and annotating (cf. LT CS, p. 111, and TKLT CCCY, p. 138). The most common explanation is that the term stands for the entire sixty-element cycle created by sequentially pairing the ten stems with the twelve branches. (For general information about the cycle, see Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 3, 1970, section 20h, especially pp. 396-398. There is also an extensive, readily accessible secondary literature on the origin and concepts of five phase thought.)
&nbs
p; Alternatively, the six double characters headed by chia within the cycle of sixty may be the subject of this passage (see Okada, Rikuto, p. 118). In this case the sentence should be understood as stating that the division into six chia provides the categories for the associations with the six subtle, marvelous spirits (which are themselves associated with the five phases. Cf. LTCC WCCS, I:83B).
For a discussion of the concept of tonal response that underlies this chapter, see Derk Bodde, "The Chinese Cosmic Magic Known as Watching for the Ethers," reprinted in Essays on Chinese Civilization (Charles Le Blanc and Dorothy Borei, eds.), Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1981, pp. 351-372.
59. Ch'i, previously encountered in discussions of "spirit" or "morale," was also associated with five phase theory and various prognosticatory practices and even had military applications, as seen in this chapter. (For further discussion, gee Onozawa Seiichi, Fukunaga Mitsuji, and Yamanoi Yu, eds., Ki no shiso, pp. 146-162; and Kuroda Yoshiko, Ki no kenkyu, pp. 165-172.)
60. The Sung edition has "stop" rather than chu-"rule"-and the sentence would accordingly be translated as "without stopping" instead of "without any direction."
61. The six domesticated animals were the horse, oxen, sheep, chickens, dogs, and pigs.
62. This chapter and the previous one on agricultural implements, which are historically important and merit separate research articles or monographs, describe the variety of equipment-especially chariots-employed by late Warring States armies. Whether this chapter is an amalgamation of earlier materials and not all the equipment was current at the time of final composition or additional sections were added in the Ch'in-Han period is not immediately clear. Similarly, many of the terms remain to be properly studied and explicated because later commentaries have not been particularly helpful in this regard and the reconstructed drawings of the T'ang and beyond are frequently misleading and unreliable. Our translation therefore must be considered tentative, although many weapons and previously nebulous pieces of equipment are becoming increasingly clear as archaeological discoveries provide concrete verification of the details. (For an introductory discussion, see Robin D.S. Yates, "Siege Engines and Late Zhou Military Technology." Further light should be cast by the volume on military technology in Needham's Science and Civilisation series.)
63. Based on numerous sources, each chariot was supposedly accompanied by seventy-two men, with three officers manning the chariot. Thus there would be a platoon of twenty-four for each flank and a third platoon for the rear (or front, depending on the deployment and mode of action). However, Liu Yin reads the text as indicating twenty-four men in total (LTCC WCCS, II:2A), as does K'ung Te-ch'i (LT CS, p. 132), who also has them pushing the vehicle-thereby implying that it is a cart rather than a chariot. However, others concur with seventy-two men in total per chariot. (Cf. Okada, Rikuto, p. 129; and TKLT CCCY, p. 148, where Hsu Pei-ken suggests that four horses were hitched to it.)
64. The name suggests it had spear tips protruding from the body of the chariot.
65. Winch-powered linked crossbows capable of firing multiple arrows in a repeating mode, presumably deriving their cocking power from the chariot's axle, only developed very late in the Warring States period. Thus this passage clearly indicates both the advanced state attained by Chinese military technology and the late composition date of this chapter. (For a discussion of such weapons based on recent archaeological discoveries, see the references included in Appendix C.)
66. The intermixed use of both bronze and iron arrowheads is to be noted.
67. According to Liu Yin (LTCC WCCS, II:3A), they were specifically designed for flank attacks.
68. As noted by Liu Yin (LTCC WCCS, II:3B), the text seems to be corrupt. The use of baggage wagons for "lightning attacks" is highly incongruous, and parts of the passage have clearly been lost because there is no mention of the number of such vehicles to be employed.
69. The text appears corrupt because the devices being described have no intrinsic relationship to chariots, yet the term Fu-hsu appears in conjunction with them. (The translation follows Okada, Rikuto, p. 138.)
70. This formulaic phrase seems out of place because it is difficult to imagine the caltrops being used in anything more than a passive role, to impede attacks and constrain the direction of an enemy's flight rather than to "urgently press an attack against invaders."
71. Following the Ming edition, which has tsou-"to flee" or "run off"-rather than the Sung edition, which has pu-"infantry."
72. Although termed "small," they must have been fairly large and been mounted on wheels or carts so as to be pushed by several men. The shields would have been essentially vertical, presenting a daunting front to aggressors. (It is also possible that they were some sort of small watchtower mounted on chariots and that instead of being accompanied by spearmen and halberdiers, as in the previous passages, speartips and halberd tips were affixed to their walls to repel invaders.)
73. Following suggestions to revise the order of the text in parallel with the previous descriptions, rather than having eight winches on each section.
74. Presumably, the chains are stretched across the water from shore to shore.
75. Lengths of rope with iron rings at each end for linking together.
76. Although the translation indicates "stars and planets" in general, it is also possible that the "morning star" is intended, which would provide exactly four items with which to orient the deployment. Modern commentators, however, tend to deemphasize what they apparently perceive as the nonscientific aspect of this chapter, preferring to interpret these phenomena in terms of winds and weather-contrary to the rich tradition of military formations and heavenly phenomena (cf. TKLT CCCY, pp. 150-151; LT CS, p. 154).
77. Liu Yin, in accord with principles found in the Art of War and the Six Secret Teachings, expands this sentence as "To the right and rear mountains and mounds, to the fore and left water and marshes, to seize convenience and advantage. This is what is meant by the Earthly Deployment" (LTCC WCCS, II:8A).
78. As Liu Yin points out, the civil is employed to attach the masses, the martial to overawe the enemy (LTCC WCCS, II:8A).
79. Throughout our translation of the Six Secret Teachings, which the authors have purported to be an ancient text dating from Early Chou times, the term shih-originally a minor rank of nobility-is frequently translated as "officer." This is to correspond to the shih's status in the Early Chou era, especially when compared with the commoners who made up the "troops" in support. As the infantry grew in importance, members of the nobility gradually assumed command roles rather than simply engaging in individual combat, as discussed in the general introduction; and the shih especially grew in professional competence, being too low on the feudal hierarchy to benefit much from the family's wealth and power or receive any substantial inheritance. With the further passage of time into the Warring States period and the displacement and disenfranchisement of a large portion of the nobility, the scope of the term broadened even further to include "warriors" in general-especially men with martial qualifications that distinguished them from the common infantryman-and also to encompass what might be termed noncommissioned officers, such as squad leaders. Thus, depending on context, the term will be translated as "officers," "warriors," or just "men" and "soldiers"-preserving wherever possible distinctions the authors may have assumed or intended in the various passages.
80. Techniques from Sun-tzu's "Nine Terrains" designed to create the ultimate commitment to "fight to the death" and thereby live.
81. Literally, set up a "cloud of fire" to act as a highly visible marker for the troops to orient themselves while escaping through whatever natural cover might be available.
82. Following the Ming edition, which has "mountain stream," hsi. The Sung edition has ch'i, "valley" or "deep gorge."
83. The intent being to make it seem they have truly gone off. However, a hundred li seems excessive, especially when they are to return surreptitiously and assume positions in c
lose proximity to the enemy.
84. Emending the Ming edition from "and stop" to the Sung's "without stopping," "incessantly," in the light of the succeeding sentence, which directs a retreat of three li before turning about. Because beating the gongs is the signal to retreat, incessant beating would presumably lure the enemy into assuming an uncontrolled, massive flight is underway.
85. The reason for this title is obscure because there is no mention of either gongs or drums in the chapter.
86. The term translated as "detachment" (t'un) apparently indicates an integral unit for temporary defensive purposes rather than the usual "encampment" because the siege presumably confines the army in a single location.
87. That is, the evil ruler whose actions have brought about the punitive actions directed toward him. The phrase reflects Chou history because it is associated with Chou's attack on the tyrannical Shang king.
88. Although Sun-tzu devotes a chapter to incendiary warfare, his focus is on aggressive actions rather than the defensive employment of fire in desperate situations. Surprisingly, the use of fire and water is little discussed in the Seven Military Classics.
89. For ease in understanding, we have translated hsu-rendered as "vacuous" in the Art of War-as "empty." (Normally, k'ung is translated as "empty.")
90. "Advantages," following the Ming edition. The Sung edition has "principles" instead. The former echoes Mencius and is perhaps more common.
91. As defined by the T'ai Kung at the end of the next chapter, "the Crow and Cloud Formation is like the crows dispersing and the clouds forming together." Flexibility is stressed in its realization.
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China Page 51
