Midnight Ride, Industrial Dawn

by Robert Martello

  4. Elbridge Henry Goss, The Life of Colonel Paul Revere (Boston: Plimpton Press, 1902), pp. 579, 590–593, 611; Jayne E. Triber, A True Republican (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), p. 194; Esther Forbes, Paul Revere and the World He Lived In (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), pp. 416–418, 440–441, 443–444.

  5. Revere’s relationship with Paul Jr. had always been close, beginning with Paul Jr.’s apprenticeship as a silversmith and continuing when Paul Jr. took over the silver shop and helped in the foundry. Paul Jr. had worked for some years in his own silver shop and bell foundry and occasionally required small amounts of financial help from his father. Triber, A True Republican, p. 181.

  6. Paul Revere’s last will and testament, dated March 14, 1818, reel 3, RFP.

  7. Transactions of the American Medical Association, 1850, as quoted in Triber, A True Republican, p. 182.

  8. A reverberatory furnace separates the fuel from the material to be smelted, thereby preventing the infusion of impurities into the final product.

  9. Otis E. Young Jr., “Origins of the American Copper Industry,” Journal of the Early Republic 3 (Summer 1983): 131; Goss, Life of Colonel Paul Revere, pp. 573–576; Canton historical society website at http://www.canton.org/history/revere1.htm; Revere House website at http://www.paulreverehouse.org/copper/index.shtml. The Revere Family Papers contain many volumes pertaining to Joseph Warren’s managerial and business practices.

  10. Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 220–223; Nathan Rosenberg, “Why in America?” in Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures, ed. Otto Mayr and Robert C. Post (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981), p. 59; A. E. Musson, “British Origins,” in Mayr and Post, Yankee Enterprise, p. 43; Walter Licht, Industrializing America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 42, 46–47.

  11. Direct government sponsorship of manufacturing never received much notice among historians. Most American studies focus on the growth of the military-industrial complex in the twentieth century, and some have explored the military’s support of early developments such as interchangeable parts, railroads, canals, and machine tools. The earliest timeframe for most of this work is the early nineteenth century, which featured critical events such as the drive toward interchangeable manufacturing or the establishment of West Point and a military engineering academic program, both after 1811. The importance of these events and others like them cannot be overemphasized, but Revere’s example illustrates that the story actually began earlier and involved other institutions besides the army. One form of direct government aid, the influence of military research and purchases upon technological and industrial growth, has received some attention. Several studies have investigated the way that European military forces became huge consumers of ordnance, a process that gave a huge impetus to mining, metallurgy, and machine production. See Merritt Roe Smith’s introduction to Military Enterprise and Technological Change (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985) as well as Alex Roland’s bibliographic essay in the same volume. Also see William McNeill, The Pursuit of Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

  12. Brooke Hindle, Emulation and Invention (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1981), p. 11.

  13. Hindle, Emulation and Invention, p. 16, quoting from John Adams’s “Discourses on Davila,” 1790–1791.

  Index

  Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations

  accounting. See recordkeeping

  Adams, John, 81, 211, 213, 226, 233, 234, 339–40

  Adams, Samuel: and gunpowder mill establishment, 62, 86

  as influential government leader, 71, 81, 101, 375n13

  and Midnight Ride, 1–2, 76–77

  on social class erosion, 93

  agriculture: and agricultural cycles, 153

  and agricultural revolution, 18, 363n6

  and entrepreneurial farmers, 14

  productivity of, in 1800s, 250–51

  and riparian lawsuits, 314–16

  and societal role of farmers, 24

  and surplus population, 250–51

  and tariff, 264

  alcohol, 35, 138, 145–46, 275, 279, 355, 369n47

  American system, the, 296–97.

  See also mass production; standardization

  Ames, Congressman Fischer, 102

  annealing. See metalworking

  Ansart, Lewis. See de Maresquelle, Louis

  apprentices: and “art and mystery” of a craft, 31–32

  decline of, after 1800, 115, 275–76

  and guild regulation in England, 23

  and indentures and contracts, 32–33, 112–13, 274, 368n40

  and iron foundry parallels, 140

  legal regulation of, 116–17

  Revere’s silver-working, 47, 111–12, 371n67

  and runaways, 33, 274

  schooling of, 31, 368n39

  traditions and practices of, 33–34, 112, 115.

  See also artisans

  army. See War Department

  artillery. See cannon casting

  artisans: in ancient civilizations, 21–22

  and capital shortages, 251, 254–55, 337

  craft hierarchy of, 28–29, 367n32

  and Constitution advocacy, 101

  culture and traditions of, 21, 24, 35

  decline and fragmentation of, 112, 114–17, 202, 251, 254, 273–76, 333

  defined, 21, 364n11, 365n20

  economic impacts of, 24

  guilds of, 22–23, 25, 364nn16, 17

  independence of, 27–28, 367nn31, 33, 35

  and industrialization, 190, 218, 251, 254, 273

  managerial skills of, 253–54

  and masculinity and paternalism, 22, 25, 113

  merchant aspirations of, 95–96

  numbers of, 24, 365n20

  organizations of, 100, 116, 218

  in patriot resistance movement, 63–75 passim, 374n8, 375n12

  and Revere as leader of, 101, 116–18, 341

  societal position and mobility of, 23, 25–28, 93, 114–15, 121, 273, 363n9, 367n30, 375n12

  and tariffs, 264

  and trade mysteries and secrets, 31–32, 133–34, 294.

  See also apprentices

  journeymen

  Association of Tradesmen and Manufacturers, 100

  banks, 103, 234, 255, 258, 272, 383n48, 403n18

  bar iron. See under iron

  Barbary pirates, 211, 247, 396n11

  barter, 56, 57, 95, 106, 116, 144, 249

  Belknap, Reverend Jeremy, 71, 376n26

  bells: acoustic properties of, 162

  and bell metal, 164–65

  casting process for, 167–68, 169

  church types, 161

  history of, 160–61

  Liberty Bell, 165

  Revere’s, 157–58, 165–70, 171–72, 299–300

  Benson, George. See Brown and Benson

  bespoke items, 50–51, 104, 155, 353

  Blanchard, Thomas, 252

  blast furnace. See under iron

  bloomery. See under iron

  bolts. See fasteners

  bookkeeping. See recordkeeping

  Boston: colonial society of, 14, 15–17, 27, 49

  and George Washington’s 1789 parade, 29

  laborer population in, 276

  as manufactory site, 149, 159, 309–10

  and postwar silver, 106

  and resistance movement, 65–68, 70–78

  silverworking in, 39–40, 51.

  See also Boston Massacre

  Boston Tea Party

  Boston Massacre, 67–68, 69, 73

  Boston Mechanic Association. See Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Association

  Boston Tea Party, 67–68, 70

  brass. See bronze

  British empire: and colonial America, 17–19, 64–65, 128–29, 313–14, 361n3, 374n3

  and copper sheathing
, 219–20

  and failure of copper mines, 221–22, 224

  and Jefferson’s embargo, 257–58

  naval dominance of, 18, 175

  technological superiority of, 17–18, 130, 131, 175

  and war with France, 257–58.

  See also British manufactures

  mercantilism

  resistance movement

  Revolutionary War

  British manufactures: bolts and spikes, 191, 197–98

  and colonial imports, 64

  and naval sheathing, 219–22

  and postwar glut of imports, 98–99, 130

  and tariff, 264

  technological superiority of, 17–18, 130, 131, 175, 191, 201.

  See also British empire

  mercantilism

  bronze: bolts and spikes of, 191, 196

  in “composition” copper, 191, 196

  gunmetal, 174, 176

  history of, 22, 163–64, 174, 390n11

  properties of, 164. See also bells

  cannon casting

  copper tin

  Brown, Moses, 135, 152

  Brown, Nicholas. See Brown and Benson

  Brown and Benson, 119, 135–36, 148–49, 165–66

  Byers, James, 179–82, 339

  cannon casting: and boring, 88, 177, 179, 187, 246, 297, 300

  and gunmetal, 176, 180

  history of, 174–76

  labor charges for, 186

  process of, 176–78

  and proving process, 177–78, 181, 185, 214, 300

  and Revere’s cannon, 87–88, 132, 173–74, 178–82, 182–86, 184, 214

  in Revolutionary War, 87–88, 175–76

  and Stoddert’s support, 214

  and wasted metal, 181–82.

  See also bronze

  Canton mill (Massachusetts): and Cantondale poem, 324–27

  equipment and buildings of, 233, 297

  labor force and policies of, 276–81

  property map, 318

  purchase and renovation of, 230–31, 239–40

  and riparian lawsuits, 316–20

  and road-building conflict, 320–21

  sketch of, 298

  capital (investment capital): capitalist attitudes on, 19–20, 34, 116, 152, 216, 249–51

  and corporations, 271–72

  and craft hierarchy, 28

  and credit, 57

  and government aid, 217–18, 255, 337–38

  in manufacturing, 137–38, 254–55

  and merchants, 95, 96, 258

  and proto-industry, 8, 351

  shortages of, 57, 60, 96–97, 151, 254–55, 337–38.

  See also capitalism; industrial capitalism

  capitalism: in colonies, 19–20, 34

  in nineteenth century, 249–51

  recordkeeping evidence of, 57–59

  and Revolutionary War, 88–89, 114–15.

  See also industrial capitalism; market economy

  carronade. See cannon casting

  Carson, Joseph, 258, 259, 261, 307, 309

  cast iron. See under iron

  casting. See under bells

  cannon casting

  iron

  silver

  charcoal: abundance of, in America, 130, 147, 309–10, 386n18

  and deforestation, 150, 309–10

  in ironworking, 123–24

  shortages of, in England, 123

  chasing. See under silver

  Coercive Acts, 67–68

  cold-working. See metalworking

  composition copper. See under bronze

  Coney, John, 16–17, 20, 29–30, 41, 52

  Constitution, USS: bolt and spikes in, 191, 196, 199

  construction of, 211–12, 396n12

  copper sheeting of, 283, 406n1

  Copley, John Singleton, 11–13, 15, 57, 60, 298, 366n28

  copper: American imports of, 189–90, 221–22, 308–9

  American production of, 189–90

  battering process for, 222

  and British mine failure, 221–22, 224

  and copper plate engraving, 48, 72, 83–85

  and coppersmiths, 189, 221, 307

  cost of, in ship construction, 225

  history of, 163–64, 188–90

  material properties of, 163–64

  mining of, 188–89, 394n61

  “old” (reused), 180, 182, 194, 200, 265–66, 308

  price of, 222

  refining of, 163, 188, 194

  rolling (see rolling mill, copper)

  as sheathing material, 220–21

  shortages of, 176, 181, 198, 200, 202, 225, 237, 260, 308–10

  smelting of, 163, 188, 229, 394n60

  for steamboat boilers, 305–7

  in sterling silver, 42, 45, 370n59

  tariff on, 264–68

  uses of, 189–90.

  See also fasteners

  metalworking

  rolling mill (copper)

  sheathing

  corporations, 269, 271–72, 322, 331, 352

  Coxe, Tench, 182, 206, 217, 219, 285, 310

  craftsmen. See artisans

  credit: in colonies, 63–64

  management of, 57, 144–45, 171, 260–61

  and merchant loans, 96–97, 254–55, 380n14

  network of, 57, 99, 144–45, 335–36

  and postwar economy, 98–99

  and proto-industrial changes, 57, 58, 116, 152, 249.

  See also banks

  capital

  customization. See bespoke items

  Davis, Amasa, 200, 238, 300

  de Maresquelle, Louis, 87–88, 132, 173, 176

  Dearborn, Henry, 235, 267–68

  deforestation, 123, 147, 149–50, 307, 309–10, 313

  Democratic-Republican party, 210, 234–36, 257–59.

  See also Jefferson, Thomas

  Dexter brothers, 279, 281, 359

  division of labor, 103–4, 108, 113–14, 218, 274

  engraving. See under silver (for silver engraving) or printing (for copperplate engraving and printing)

  entrepreneurship: of artisans, 27–28

  and capitalism, 19–20

  definition of, 19–20

  government support for, 287, 305

  in large technological system, 126, 152, 284

  in manufacturing endeavors, 120, 151–52, 247, 252, 254–55, 296

  and postwar opportunities, 89, 115, 252

  and proto-industry, 7–8.

  See also capitalism

  environment: Americans’ resource assessment of, 147, 307

  and manufacturing, 147–51, 307–8, 314–15, 389n54

  and middle landscape, 327

  and pastoralism, 327

  and proto-industry, 351

  and riparian management and legislation, 312–16, 410nn55, 60

  and woodland management, 150–51.

  See also raw materials

  waterpower

  Evans, Oliver, 252, 255

  Eve, Oswell, 62, 86

  farmers. See agriculture

  fasteners (bolts and spikes): British technology for, 192–93, 220

  definition of, 190

  Revere’s manufacturing process for, 190–92, 302–3

  and Revere’s sales and profits, 197–201, 262–63, 263

  tariff on, 268

  and technology transfer, 193–95

  Faxon, Elib, 187, 356, 392n36

  federal government: administrative inexperience of, 179, 182, 206–8, 240–41

  and Articles of Confederation, 207

  cannon purchases of, 179–80, 182–83, 214

  and Constitution, 101, 207

  foreign policy of, 209–10, 234

  and government contracting, 187, 190–92, 197, 203, 206, 208–9, 225, 240–43

  and Hamilton’s financial policies, 209–10, 234

  and Jefferson’s cost cutting, 234–37

  and loose vs. strict construction, 208, 213, 235, 237

  and manufacturing
support, 224, 255, 287, 337–38, 412n11

  and non-importation and embargo under Jefferson, 257–58

  partisan nature of, 208, 212, 234–35.

  See also Navy, Department of

  patents

  Postal Service

  tariff

  War Department

  Federalists: and Constitution, 100–101, 207–8

  manufacturing support of, 217–19, 337

  and navy program, 210–11

  partisan strife of, with Jefferson, 234–35

  policies of, under Washington and Adams, 209–10, 234

  silver style of, 106

  and Stoddert’s policies, 211, 213–14

  finer. See under iron

  Fitch, John, 252, 255, 286, 305

  flatting mill. See rolling mill (silver)

  founder. See under iron

  foundry. See under iron

  France: and cannon development, 174

  and copper sheathing development, 399n34

  and French Revolution, 247

  and Napoleon, 247

  and Quasi-War with America, 210, 212–13, 396n8

  and war with Great Britain, 257–58.

  See also French and Indian War

  Quasi-War

  Franklin, Benjamin, 28, 33, 34, 216, 218, 339, 378n40

  Freemasons. See Masons

  French and Indian War, 18, 40, 63–64, 85

  Fulton, Robert, 152, 246, 252, 258, 305–6, 399n42

  furnace. See iron

  Gallatin, Albert, 235–36, 264–65

  gentlemen: and artisans, 100

  in colonial society, 26–27, 366n26

  Esquire as a title for, 100, 197, 269, 301, 324, 329

  and labor, 27, 254

  and middle class, 66

  in the military, 79, 377n32.

  See also social classes and mobility

  gentry. See gentlemen

  gold, goldsmiths.See silver

  government. See federal government

  Massachusetts government

  guilds. See artisans

  gunpowder, 61–62, 85–86, 378n40

  Hamilton, Alexander: as Federalist leader, 234

  fiscal policies of, in 1780s, 115, 159, 209, 234, 383n48

  manufacturing support of, 206, 217–18, 234, 242, 285, 398n29

  and national government, 207, 396n6

  Hancock, John, 1, 2, 71, 75–77, 101