Mind in Motion
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Tversky, B., & Hard, B. M. (2009). Embodied and disembodied cognition: Spatial perspective-taking. Cognition, 110(1), 124–129.
Oldest map (so far)
Clarke, K. C. (2013). What is the world’s oldest map? Cartographic Journal, 50(2), 136–143.
Utrilla, P., Mazo, C., Sopena, M. C., Martínez-Bea, M., & Domingo, R. (2009). A paleolithic map from 13,660 calBP: engraved stone blocks from the Late Magdalenian in Abauntz Cave (Navarra, Spain). Journal of Human Evolution, 57(2), 99–111.
Place and grid cells
Fyhn, M., Molden, S., Witter, M. P., Moser, E. I., & Moser, M. B. (2004). Spatial representation in the entorhinal cortex. Science, 305, 1258–1264.
Moser, E. I., Kropff, E., & Moser, M. B. (2008). Place cells, grid cells, and the brain’s spatial representation system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 31.
O’Keefe, J. (1976). Place units in the hippocampus of the freely moving rat. Experimental Neurology, 51, 78–109.
O’Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
Allocentric coding of space (even in babies)
Burgess, N. (2006). Spatial memory: How egocentric and allocentric combine. Trends in Cognitive Science, 10(12), 551–557.
Doeller, C. F., Barry, C., & Burgess, N. (2010). Evidence for grid cells in a human memory network. Nature, 463(7281), 657–661.
Ekstrom A., Kahana M. J., Caplan, J. B., Fields, T. A., Isham, E. A., Newman, E. L., & Fried, I. (2003). Cellular networks underlying human spatial navigation. Nature, 425, 184–188.
Jacobs, J., Weidemann, C. T., Miller, J. F., Solway, A., Burke, J. F., Wei, X. X., Suthana, N.,… Kahan, M. J. (2013). Direct recordings of grid-like neuronal activity in human spatial navigation. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 1188–1190.
Kaufman, J., & Needham, A. (1999). Objective spatial coding by 6.5-month-old infants in a visual dishabituation task. Developmental Science, 2(4), 432–441.
Brain substrates for navigation
Epstein, R. A., Patai, E. Z., Julian, J. B., & Spiers, H. J. (2017). The cognitive map in humans: Spatial navigation and beyond. Nature Neuroscience, 20(11), 1504.
Marchette, S. A., Ryan, J., & Epstein, R. A. (2017). Schematic representations of local environmental space guide goal-directed navigation. Cognition, 158, 68–80.
Test for London taxi drivers
Knowledge Taxi. (n.d.). London knowledge. Retrieved from https://www.theknowledgetaxi.co.uk/
Hippocampi of London taxi cab drivers grow larger
Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), 4398–4403.
Neural reuse
Anderson, M. L. (2010). Neural reuse: A fundamental organizational principle of the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(4), 245–266.
Hippocampus for episodic memory
Eichenbaum, H., & Cohen, N. J. (2014). Can we reconcile the declarative memory and spatial navigation views on hippocampal function? Neuron, 83(4), 764–770.
Poppenk, J., Evensmoen, H. R., Moscovitch, M., & Nadel, L. (2013). Long-axis specialization of the human hippocampus. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(5), 230–240.
H.M.
Corkin, S. (2002). What’s new with the amnesic patient HM? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(2), 153.
Milner, B., Corkin, S., & Teuber, H. L. (1968). Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syndrome: 14-year follow-up study of HM. Neuropsychologia, 6(3), 215–234.
Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 20(1), 11.
Hippocampus plans future events
Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. (2012). The hippocampus and imagining the future: Where do we stand? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 173.
Bellmund, J. L., Deuker, L., Schröder, T. N., & Doeller, C. F. (2016). Grid-cell representations in mental simulation. Elife, 5, e17089.
Benoit, R. G., & Schacter, D. L. (2015). Specifying the core network supporting episodic simulation and episodic memory by activation likelihood estimation. Neuropsychologia, 75, 450–457.
Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007). Using imagination to understand the neural basis of episodic memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 27(52), 14365–14374.
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007). Deconstructing episodic memory with construction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(7), 299–306.
Mullally, S. L., & Maguire, E. A. (2014). Memory, imagination, and predicting the future: A common brain mechanism? Neuroscientist, 20(3), 220–234.
Schacter, D. L. (2012). Adaptive constructive processes and the future of memory. American Psychologist, 67(8), 603.
Schacter, D. L., Benoit, R. G., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017). Episodic future thinking: Mechanisms and functions. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 17, 41–50.
Grid cells map space, time, and abstract relations
Gratitude to friends who are experts and who have helped me over the years to understand the many roles of hippocampal-entorhinal cortex and to find these references, especially Lynn Nadel, Morris Moscovitch, Dan Schacter, and Anthony Wagner. In previous years, John O’Keefe, Russell Epstein, Randy Gallistel, and Eleanor Maguire. They are in no way responsible for my oversimplification, and I hope it won’t make them cringe.
Collin, S. H., Milivojevic, B., & Doeller, C. F. (2017). Hippocampal hierarchical networks for space, time, and memory. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 17, 71–76.
Constantinescu, A. O., O’Reilly, J. X., & Behrens, T. E. (2016). Organizing conceptual knowledge in humans with a gridlike code. Science, 352(6292), 1464–1468.
Deuker, L., Bellmund, J. L., Schröder, T. N., & Doeller, C. F. (2016). An event map of memory space in the hippocampus. Elife, 5, e16534.
Epstein, R. A., Patai, E. Z., Julian, J. B., & Spiers, H. J. (2017). The cognitive map in humans: Spatial navigation and beyond. Nature Neuroscience, 20(11), 1504.
Garvert, M. M., Dolan, R. J., & Behrens, T. E. (2017). A map of abstract relational knowledge in the human hippocampal-entorhinal cortex. Elife, 6, e17086.
Howard, M. W., & Eichenbaum, H. (2015). Time and space in the hippocampus. Brain Research, 1621, 345–354.
Stachenfeld, K. L., Botvinick, M. M., & Gershman, S. J. (2017). The hippocampus as a predictive map. Nature Neuroscience, 20(11), 1643.
Tavares, R. M., Mendelsohn, A., Grossman, Y., Williams, C. H., Shapiro, M., Trope, Y., & Schiller, D. (2015). A map for social navigation in the human brain. Neuron, 87(1), 231–243.
Spatial schemas in abstract thought
Gattis, M. (Ed.). (2003). Spatial schemas and abstract thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Schubert, T. W., & Maass, A. (Eds.). (2011). Spatial dimensions of social thought. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.
Systematic distortions in cognitive maps
Byrne, R. W. (1979). Memory for urban geography. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 147–154.
Hirtle, S. C., & Jonides, J. (1985). Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory & Cognition, 13(3), 208–217.
Hirtle, S. C., & Mascolo, M. F. (1986). The effect of semantic clustering on the memory of spatial locations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 12, 181–189.
Holyoak, K. J., & Mah, W. A. (1982). Cognitive reference points in judgments of symbolic magnitude. Cognitive Psychology, 14(3), 328–352.
Maki, R. H. (1981). Categorization and distance effects with spatial linear orders. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 15–32.
McNamara, T. P., & Diwadkar, V. A. (1997). Symmetry and asymmetry of human spatial memory. Cognitive Psychology, 34(2), 160–190.
Milgram, S. (1976). Psychological maps of Paris. In H. M. Proshansky, W. Ittelson, & L. Rivlin (Eds.), Environ
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Portugali, Y. (1993). Implicate relations: Society and space in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Sadalla, E. K., Burroughs, W. J., & Staplin, L.J. (1980). Reference points in spatial cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6(5), 516.
Stevens, A., & Coupe, P. (1978). Distortions in judged spatial relations. Cognitive Psychology, 10(4), 422–437.
Tversky, B. (1981). Distortions in memory for maps. Cognitive Psychology, 13(3), 407–433.
Tversky, B. (1993). Cognitive maps, cognitive collages, and spatial mental models. In A. U. Frank & I. Compari (Eds.), Conference on spatial information theory (pp. 14–24). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Tversky, B. (2000). Levels and structure of spatial knowledge. In R. Kitchin & S. Freundschuh (Eds.), Cognitive mapping: Past, present and future (pp. 24–43). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
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Wilton, R. N. (1979). Knowledge of spatial relations: The specification of information used in making inferences. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 133–146.
Partonomies
Miller, G. A., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1976). Language and perception. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Tversky, B., & Hemenway, K. (1984). Objects, parts, and categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113(2), 169.
Parallel distortions in social thought
Jones, E. E., Wood, G. C., & Quattrone, G. A. (1981). Perceived variability of personal characteristics in in-groups and out-groups: The role of knowledge and evaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(3), 523–528.
Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1982). Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(6), 1051.
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Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117, 440–463.
Asymmetric similarity
Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive reference points. Cognitive Psychology, 7(4), 532–547.
Tversky, A. (1977). Features of similarity. Psychological Review, 84(4), 327.
Cognitive maps
Baird, J. C. (1979). Studies of the cognitive representation of spatial relations: I. Overview. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 90–91.
Landau, B., Spelke, E., & Gleitman, H. (1984). Spatial knowledge in a young blind child. Cognition, 16, 225–260.
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189–208.
World can resolve ambiguities
Tversky, B. (2002). Navigating by mind and by body. In C. Freksa, W. Brauer, C. Habel, & K. F. Wender (Eds.), Spatial cognition III [Lecture Notes in Computer Science] (Vol. 2685). Berlin, Germany: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45004-1_1
CHAPTER FOUR: TRANSFORMING THOUGHT
Mental rotation of objects
Shepard, R. N., & Cooper, L. A. (1986). Mental images and their transformations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171, 701–703.
Part-by-part mental rotation
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985). Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability. Psychological Review, 92(2), 137.
Mental rotation spatial ability test
Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47(2), 599–604.
Rotating hands helps mental rotation
Chu, M., & Kita, S. (2008). Spontaneous gestures during mental rotation tasks: Insights into the microdevelopment of the motor strategy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 706.
Wexler, M., Kosslyn, S. M., & Berthoz, A. (1998). Motor processes in mental rotation. Cognition, 68(1), 77–94.
Mental rotation activates motor cortex
Zacks, J. M. (2008). Neuroimaging studies of mental rotation: A meta-analysis and review. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(1), 1–19.
Mental rotation of one’s body
Parsons, L. M. (1987). Imagined spatial transformation of one’s body. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116(2), 172.
Parsons, L. M. (1987). Imagined spatial transformations of one’s hands and feet. Cognitive Psychology, 19(2), 178–241.
Zacks, J. M., Ollinger, J. M., Sheridan, M. A., & Tversky, B. (2002). A parametric study of mental spatial transformations of bodies. Neuroimage, 16(4), 857–872.
Zacks, J., Rypma, B., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Tversky, B., & Glover, G. H. (1999). Imagined transformations of bodies: An fMRI investigation. Neuropsychologia, 37(9), 1029–1040.
Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2005). Multiple systems for spatial imagery: Transformations of objects and bodies. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5(4), 271–306.
Losing an arm slows mental rotation of hand
Nico, D., Daprati, E., Rigal, F., Parsons, L., & Sirigu, A. (2004). Left and right hand recognition in upper limb amputees. Brain, 127(1), 120–132.
Actually turning the body facilitates imagined turning
Klatzky, R. L., Loomis, J. M., Beall, A. C., Chance, S. S., & Golledge, R. G. (1998). Spatial updating of self-position and orientation during real, imagined, and virtual locomotion. Psychological Science, 9(4), 293–298.
No facilitation from actual translations for imagined translations
Rieser, J. J. (1989). Access to knowledge of spatial structure at novel points of observation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(6), 1157.
More mental transformations: Mental scanning, mental shape comparison, mental transformations of size
Bundesen, C., Larsen, A., & Farrell, J. E. (1981). Mental transformations of size and orientation. Attention and Performance, 9, 279–294.
Denis, M., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1999). Scanning visual mental images: A window on the mind. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition, 18, 409–465.
Shepard, R. N., & Chipman, S. (1970). Second-order isomorphism of internal representations: Shapes of states. Cognitive Psychology, 1(1), 1–17.
Constructing mental images in parts
Finke, R. A., Pinker, S., & Farah, M. J. (1989). Reinterpreting visual patterns in mental imagery. Cognitive Science, 13(1), 51–78.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Mental drawing underlies creating mental images
Novick, L. R., & Tversky, B. (1987). Cognitive constraints on ordering operations: The case of geometric analogies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116(1), 50–67.
Failures of imagining speed of motion: Pedestrian casualties
Guo, H., Wang, W., Guo, W., Jiang, X., & Bubb, H. (2012). Reliability analysis of pedestrian safety crossing in urban traffic environment. Safety Science, 50(4), 968–973.
Wierwille, W. W., Hanowski, R. J., Hankey, J. M., Kieliszewski, C. A., Lee, S. E., Medina, A., . . Dingus, T. A. (2002). Identification and evaluation of driver errors: Overview and recomme
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People and dogs use heuristics to catch balls and Frisbees
McBeath, M. K., Shaffer, D. M., & Kaiser, M. K. (1995). How baseball outfielders determine where to run to catch fly balls. Science, 268(5210), 569.
Shaffer, D. M., Krauchunas, S. M., Eddy, M., & McBeath, M. K. (2004). How dogs navigate to catch Frisbees. Psychological Science, 15(7), 437–441.
Shaffer, D. M., & McBeath, M. K. (2005). Naive beliefs in baseball: Systematic distortion in perceived time of apex for fly balls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(6), 1492.
Mental animation is step-by-step, not continuous
Hegarty, M. (1992). Mental animation: Inferring motion from static displays of mechanical systems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 1084.
Hegarty, M., & Sims, V. K. (1994). Individual differences in mental animation during mechanical reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 22(4), 411–430.
Spatial ability is multifaceted
Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2005). Individual differences in spatial abilities. In P. Shah & A. Miyake (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 121–169). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Both genes and environment contribute to spatial ability
Tosto, M. G., Hanscombe, K. B., Haworth, C. M. A., Davis, O. S. P., Petrill, S. A., Dale, P. S.,… Kovas, Y. (2014). Why do spatial abilities predict mathematical performance? Developmental Science, 17, 462–470. doi:10.1111/desc.12138
Genes for athletics
Epstein, D. (2014). The sports gene: Inside the science of extraordinary athletic performance. New York, NY: Penguin.
Several tests of spatial ability
Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817.
Gender and mental rotation
Halpern, D. F. (2013). Sex differences in cognitive abilities. New York, NY: Psychology Press.