Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  2. In a small saucepan, combine the poppy seeds, water, sugar, lemon juice, salt, and, if using, zest and simmer over medium-low heat, stirring frequently, until the mixture thickens, about 12 minutes. Remove from the heat and, if using, add the raisins and/or nuts. Let cool. Store in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

  Ashkenazic Prune Filling (Flohmenfullung)

  about 2 cups

  [PAREVE]

  1½ cups (9 ounces) pitted dried plums, or 1 cup pitted dried plums and ½ cup raisins

  ½ cup ground walnuts or fresh bread crumbs

  ¼ cup honey or 2 tablespoons sugar

  1 teaspoon grated lemon zest (optional)

  1 teaspoon grated orange zest (optional)

  In a medium saucepan, simmer the prunes in water to cover until soft, about 30 minutes. Drain. Grind or mash the prunes. Stir in the walnuts, honey, and, if using, zests.

  Fish

  There are more than thirty thousand types of fish worldwide, of which only those that possess fins and cycloid (round) or ctenoid (comblike) scales are deemed kosher. These species of fish have been an integral part of Jewish cookery from the onset and they are enjoyed in a wide variety of forms. Until relatively recently, fish provided an inexpensive source of protein in many locales, and was a necessity in some places, or in times of poverty. As the Israelites complained to Moses in the wilderness, "We remember the fish that we ate in Egypt for nothing," referring to the more than two hundred species native to the Nile. Over the succeeding generations, the species of fish favored by Jews and the ways in which fish was popularly prepared became dependent upon where people lived. Certain species of fish and certain ways to prepare fish became particularly associated with Jewish cookery.

  During the First and Second Temple periods, the Sea of Galilee (Yam Kinneret in Hebrew, Israel's only freshwater lake and the lowest freshwater lake on earth), the Mediterranean Sea, and the Jordan River provided a plentiful supply of fish. Anyone who could travel to any body of water was free to fish there. The prominence of aquatic creatures is confirmed by the large number of fish bones that have been unearthed in various Jerusalem archeological sites. One of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate in reference to the adjoining fish market. The profusion of references to fish and fishermen in both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud reflect the continuing importance of fish. The abundance of fish in the rivers and canals of Babylon made them a valuable source of protein, which was available to even the very poor.

  Those living close to the Mediterranean and Arabian seas made use of saltwater fish, such as anchovies, bass, cod, flounder, haddock, halibut, mackerel, red mullet, sardines, smelts, and sole. Sea bass, which can grow up to twenty pounds and is delicately flavored and firm fleshed, is particularly beloved by Mediterranean Jews. Favorite ways of preparing fish in the eastern Mediterranean include stewed, grilled, baked (such as the Greek Plaki) and poached (especially in lemon-dill sauce).

  German, Baltic, and Polish Jews enjoyed a plentiful supply of herring from the brackish waters of the Baltic Sea. Land-locked parts of northern Europe relied on freshwater species, most notably carp, perch, pike, smelts, and whitefish. Herring, tench, and chub were the fish of the poor; they were served along with black bread as everyday fare.

  Raising fish in artificial ponds, including rock- hewn pools in Caesarea and Rosh Hanikra, has been a Jewish practice for more than two thousand years. In medieval Europe, Ashkenazim emerged as leading pisciculturists, operating fish farms in various lakes and the Black, Caspian, and Azov seas. In 1939, Kibbutz Nir-David in the Jezreel Valley introduced the first artificial fish ponds in Israel, primarily raising carp, and the country soon became the world leader in fish farming. Due to the dramatic decrease in Mediterranean fish toward the end of the twentieth century, farm-raised fish became all the more important. Besides carp, Israelis produce barramundi, rock bass, sea bass, sea bream, gray mullet, salmon, tilapia, and trout. As the amount of fresh fish increased, fish became a growing part of the Israeli diet.

  In Jewish tradition, more symbolism has become attached to fish, the creatures of the hidden world (water), than almost any other food besides bread. Fish were not destroyed with the land animals during the Flood at the time of Noah and, therefore, are considered to be lacking in sin. Appended to the biblical account of the creation of the denizens of the deep was a special blessing, "Be fruitful and multiply," and fish consequently serve as a Jewish symbol of fertility and prosperity. Hence fish are common on illustrated ketubot (marriage documents), as well as on Middle Eastern amulets for barren women. Among Moroccans, the seventh day of Sheva Berachot (the seven feast days following a wedding) is called "the day of the fish"; on this occasion, the groom takes a bite from a fish, then gives the remainder to his bride, as a symbol of prospective fertility.

  During the Babylonian exile, fish also became a symbol of good fortune because Pisces is the mazel (zodiac sign) of the month of Adar, an auspicious month for the Jews due to the events of Purim. The Talmud noted that water protected fish from the evil eye, so fish became popular for good luck charms in the Middle East. In eastern Europe, the word fish even became a name, Fishel, reflecting an optimistic belief that the boy bearing it would be lucky and protected.

  Fish are not only connected to creation in the Jewish tradition, but also to the ultimate destiny as well. According to legend, the Leviathan is a giant fish that rules over all the creatures of the sea. From the beautiful skin of the Leviathan, God will, at the onset of the messianic age, construct a canopy called "the Succah of the Leviathan" to shelter the righteous from the sun. The righteous will then eat the flesh of the Leviathan in a feast amidst great joy. In this allegory, written under Roman oppression, the Leviathan symbolizes chaos, destruction, and the historical empires of Egypt, Assyria, and Rome. The myth therefore represents the ultimate destruction of despotism and evil.

  As a result of the fish's accrued mystical dimensions, for millennia no Sabbath has been considered complete without it. Friday night encompasses the theme of creation and shalosh seudot (the third meal) at the end of the Sabbath is devoted to the subject of the messianic age, and fish as a thematic symbol appears on both occasions. A passage in the Talmud refers to fish contributing to the ambiance of the Sabbath: "Wherewith does one show delight in the Sabbath? Rav Judah the son of Samuel ben Shilath said in the name of Rav, 'With beet greens, a large fish, and garlic.' Even a trifle, if it is prepared in honor of Shabbat, is a delight. What is it [a trifle]? Rav Papa said, 'A chopped fish casserole.' " Some commentators posit that the three items mentioned by Rav Judah are aphrodisiacs, echoing the fertility aspect of fish.

  Israel Zangwill, in his tale of Jewish life in London, Children of the Ghetto (1892), described Jewish cookery: "Fish was indeed the staple of the meal. Fried fish, and such fried fish! With the audacity of true culinary genius, Jewish fried fish is always served cold. The skin is a beautiful brown, the substance firm and succulent... and there is even gefullte Fisch, which is stuffed fish without bones—but fried fish reigns above all in cold, unquestioned superiority."

  On Rosh Hashanah, fish contains a multiplicity of symbolic meanings, including creation and the hope for a fruitful future. Among the most well-known Rosh Hashanah traditions is the presence of a fish head on the table to indicate that one should be "a head rather than a tail" during the coming year. Moroccans poach or bake a whole white-fleshed fish with the head attached for the occasion. Italians eat sweet-and-sour fish on the New Year, while Alsatians offer a version with carp and raisins. Greeks start their year with plaki (baked fish with tomatoes). Indian Jews serve fish rubbed with masala (curry) and baked in a tandoor oven, or fillets poached in romaine lettuce leaves. Iraqi Jews, however, avoid fish on Rosh Hashanah altogether, since its Hebrew name, dag, is similar to da'ag (to worry).

  Fish is also traditional among many communities for breaking the fast of Yom Kippur: cold fried fish for some Sephardim, poached fish seasoned with lemon among Greeks and Turks, herring
and potato salad among the Dutch, and pickled fish for many Ashkenazim. Some communities follow an ancient custom of placing cooked fish on the Passover table during the Seder in honor of Miriam, who supported her brother Moses alongside two bodies of waters—the Nile and the Red Sea—and through whose merit the Jews received water during their forty-year stay in the wilderness. Fish is common on Shavuot, as the meals are frequently dairy.

  Sephardim also usually serve fish, notably fried flounder (peshkado frito), for Thursday night dinner, which was customarily a meatless meal before the Sabbath. Weekday fish dishes tend to be warm, while those meant for the Sabbath are generally cold. In modern Israel, the fried fish served for Thursday dinner became known as dag Moshe rabbeinu (fish of Moses, our teacher).

  In addition to its various mystical meanings, fish offers several practical elements for the Jewish home, most notably that it is pareve and it does not require ritual slaughter or preparation, such as soaking and salting. Reflecting the relative simplicity of the kosher status of fish, the Shulchan Arukh (the codification of Jewish laws par excellence written by Joseph Caro c. 1565) devoted only a single chapter to it, while the various issues surrounding meat and poultry required nearly a hundred chapters.

  Flammekueche

  Flammekueche is a thin tart with cheese filling.

  Origin: Alsace, France

  Other names: tarte flambée.

  Flammekueche, which literally means "flamed cake" or "cooked in flames," is an Alsatian classic born of frugality and expediency in the nineteenth century among the peasants of Bas Rhin. Housewives typically baked bread once a week; in Jewish households, the bread was baked on Thursday or Friday for the Sabbath. The women, their time otherwise occupied with numerous tasks, would use a little of the dough along with a few other handy pantry items to make a quick and filling lunch or dinner for the family, while testing the heat of the wood-fired oven. After the logs had been burning in the oven, the embers would be brushed aside and a thin tart would be placed on the oven floor in order to judge the temperature before inserting the precious loaves of bread. If the oven was hot enough, within a minute or two, the thin crust would be baked and the edges would be nearly blackened—hence the name of the tart. After the loaves of bread were baked and pulled from the oven, the heat would gradually fade and various treats for the family would be baked, such as a kugelhopf or zimtkuchen (cinnamon cookies).

  Flammekueche became so beloved that it was prepared in its own right in homes throughout the week, as well as offered on the menu of restaurants; some cooks made versions without yeast and others substituted puff pastry for the bread dough. The dough is stretched thin, like a pizza, then spread with fromage blanc (similar to the German quark) and cream and sometimes sprinkled with a bit of pepper or nutmeg. Today, some cooks substitute the French crème fraîche for some or all of the Teutonic fromage blanc. Whereas non-Jews topped their versions with smoked bacon, Jews always whipped up a vegetarienne (vegetarian) version by substituting mushrooms. Flammekueche is still baked at a very hot temperature, ensuring crispy edges, then cut into serving slices akin to a pizza. Some people roll a wedge from the crust end to the point, then eat the roll from end to end.

  Alsatian Cheese Tart (Flammekueche)

  8 servings as an appetizer or 4 as a main course

  [DAIRY]

  Dough:

  1 package (2¼ teaspoons) active dry yeast or 1 (0.6-ounce) cake fresh yeast

  ¾ cup plus 2 tablespoons warm water (105°F to 115°F for dry yeast; 80°F to 85°F for fresh yeast); or ½ cup plus 2 tablespoons water and ¼ cup beer; or ¼ cup water, ¼ cup beer, and 6 tablespoons milk

  1 teaspoon sugar

  1 large egg

  2 tablespoons vegetable oil or shortening

  1 teaspoon table salt or 2 teaspoons kosher salt

  About 2¼ cups (11.25 ounces) bread or unbleached all-purpose flour

  Topping:

  2 tablespoons vegetable oil

  1 medium onion, chopped

  1 pound mushrooms, sliced

  ½ cup plus 2 tablespoons (5 ounces) crème fraîche or sour cream

  ½ cup (4 ounces) fromage blanc, quark, gevina levana (Israeli white cheese), or farmer cheese

  About ½ teaspoon table salt or 1 teaspoon kosher salt

  About ¼ teaspoon ground white or black pepper and/or 4 pinches of ground nutmeg

  1. To make the dough: Dissolve the yeast in ¼ cup water. Stir in the sugar and let stand until foamy, 5 to 10 minutes. In a large bowl, combine the yeast mixture, remaining water, egg, oil, salt, and 1 cup flour. Gradually add enough of the remaining flour to make a mixture that holds together.

  2. On a lightly floured surface, knead the dough until smooth and elastic, about 10 minutes. Place in an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover loosely with plastic wrap or a kitchen towel and let rise in a warm, draft-free place until doubled in bulk, about 1½ hours.

  3. To make the topping: In a large skillet, heat the oil over medium heat. Add the onion and sauté until slightly golden, about 15 minutes. Add the mushrooms and sauté until tender, about 7 minutes. Let cool.

  4. Preheat the oven to 450°F.

  5. Line a 15½-by-10½-by-1-inch or 12-inch square baking sheet with parchment paper or grease the sheet. Or use a large baking stone. Punch down the dough and knead briefly. Let stand for 10 minutes, then on a lightly floured surface, roll out to fit the baking sheet. Or divide the dough in half and roll each into a 9½-inch round. Transfer the dough to the baking sheet.

  6. Combine the crème fraîche, cheese, salt, and pepper. Spread evenly over the dough, leaving a rim around the outside. Sprinkle the mushrooms and onions over the top.

  7. Bake until the edges are browned and the topping is bubbly, about 20 minutes on a baking sheet and about 12 minutes on a baking stone. Cut into wedges and serve hot.

  Flan

  Flan is a baked custard which sometimes features a caramelized sugar base. When the custard is inverted to serve, the caramel becomes a sauce.

  Origin: Spain

  Other names: French: crème caramel, crème renversée: Spanish: flan de huevo, leche flan.

  The ancient Romans understood the binding capacity of eggs; they were the first known to cook them with milk and honey into various custard-like dishes. The Roman writer Apicius included in his cookbook (compiled c. 400 CE) one sweet custard, tiropatinam. He directed, "Take enough milk for the baking dish, mix the milk with honey like for a milk dish, add five eggs for a sextarius [about 2.4 cups], three for a half sextarius, mix until fully integrated, strain through a clay vessel and cook gently; when firm sprinkle with pepper and serve." Most of Apicius' rudimentary custards, however, were savory. In addition, most of the Roman egg dishes were made with wine, fruit purees, or other various liquids, rather than milk, and contained poultry, seafood, or other proteins.

  After the fall of Rome, many of its foods and cooking techniques vanished from Europe and, subsequently, soft cheese was commonly paired with eggs in creamy cooked dishes instead of milk. Medieval cheese "custards" were typically baked in open pastry shells, such as the Italian crostata and fourteenth-century Anglo-French crustade, which around the beginning of the eighteenth century became the source of the English word custard. Another western European cheese tart, the flaon, gave rise to the Spanish word for custard, flan.

  Meanwhile, in the medieval Arab world, probably Spain, cooks discovered how to make a more delicate and subtly sweet custard by blending eggs, cream, and sugar, and baking it in an earthenware dish instead of pastry; this custard was called leche flan (milk custard). By the end of the sixteenth century, the English followed suit, using milk and sugar and baking the custard without a crust. Unlike the English, who used the word custard, most other Europeans never developed a specific word for the dish. Early sweet custards were typically flavored with wine, brandy, or spices (vanilla only emerged in European cooking in the mid-nineteenth century). In addition to sweetening the custard, Moorish cooks also lined the baking dish w
ith a thin covering of caramelized sugar. Many cooks prepare flan in a special round metal mold with a lid; this mold can be used in the oven or in a double boiler on the stovetop.

  Sephardim enjoyed various leche flans at dairy occasions and pareve flans at either meat or milk meals; modern cooks sometimes replace cow's milk with soy milk. In flan de naranjas, the favorite Sephardic type of sweet custard, orange juice is substituted for the milk. Orange flan remains a popular dessert, especially on Passover. The custard is frequently made with the remaining egg yolks after the egg whites go into a sponge cake.

  Sephardic Baked Matza Custard (Flan De Pessah/Peete De Che)

  6 to 8 servings

  [DAIRY]

  5 large eggs, 7 large egg yolks, or 2 large eggs and 4 large egg yolks

  3 cups whole milk or half-and-half, or 1½ cups heavy cream and 1½ cups whole milk

  ½ cup sugar

  1½ teaspoons vanilla extract

  1/8 teaspoon table salt or ¼ teaspoon kosher salt

  About 1 cup crushed matza

  ¾ teaspoon ground cinnamon or ¼ teaspoon ground nutmeg (optional)

  1. Preheat the oven to 325°F. Place a kitchen towel in the bottom of a large baking pan. Grease a 1½-quart baking dish or six ¾-cup or eight ½-cup custard cups or ramekins.

  2. In a large bowl, beat the eggs. Blend in the milk, sugar, vanilla, and salt. Pour into the prepared dish or cups. Sprinkle with the matza and, if using, cinnamon.

  3. Set the baking dish or cups in the baking pan, add hot water to reach halfway up the sides, and cover loosely with aluminum foil.

  4. Bake until the custard is set but the center trembles, about 50 minutes for cups or about 1¼ hours for a baking dish. The custard firms more as it chills. Remove the baking dish or cups from the water. Let cool for 1 hour, then cover and refrigerate for at least 4 hours. The custard can be prepared up to 2 days ahead.

  Flanken

  Flanken, from the German word meaning "side/flank," is used in Yiddish for the short ribs, the lower section (sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs) of the chuck ribs. The upper part surrounds the rib eye; the scrap bones from trimming rib-eye steaks are called beef back ribs. The chuck short ribs are leaner but less tender than those from the plate, which is below the rib section. Short ribs that are cut across the bone and grain into strips about two inches thick are called flanken, brust flanken, and cross-cut short ribs. When cut with the grain and parallel to the bone, they are called English short ribs. In the 1950s, the term flanken—first mentioned in 1951 in both Commentary ("How can a Jew be expected to carry on without boiled beef flanken and chopped chicken liver?") and the New York Times—entered American English and became common among non-Jewish butchers and cookbook writers as well.