1421: The Year China Discovered the World
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Iceland, 350, 355, 427
Idrisi, Al, 345, 377
Incas, 157, 199, 250, 454
Indian Ocean: Chinese navigation, 363–4, 367, 449; Portuguese expeditions, 376, 430; trade, 101–2, 363
indigo, 260
Indochina, 190
Indonesia, 447
Innocent VIII, Pope, 427
Irminger current, 345
iron, 145, 146, 200, 218, 219
Isabella of Castile, Queen of Spain, 428
Isiha, 61
Islam, 47, 67, 149, 271, 387, 396
jade: Chinese gifts of, 64; Chinese grave goods, 441; Chinese in Mexico, 265–6; jewellery, 63, 441; Mayan carvings, 253; quilin’s message, 58–9
James Ford Bell Library, 29, 239, 284
Janela, 133, 134, 136, 137, 210
Japan, 61, 64, 66, 127, 128, 149
Japanese current, 237
Java, 64, 104, 105, 176, 202
João I, King of Portugal, 385, 394, 403
João II, King of Portugal, 364, 422–3, 432
Johannessen, Carl, 266
Juan de San Miguel, Fra, 257
Jucutácato, 227, 263–4, 318
junks: armaments, 70; Australian rock carvings, 204; ballast, 315; construction, 93; crew, 95; on Fra Mauro’s map, 122, 124; handling, 94, 140; losses, 70; repairs, 240–1, 311–17; rudders, 70, 205, 206, 270; sails, 65, 94; size, 66, 69–70; watertight compartments, 66, 93, 105
kangaroos, 202, 222
Kangnido: authenticity, 436, 449; depiction of Africa, 128–30, 131, 136, 178, 281; depiction of Azores, 325, 345; history, 127–8; sources, 436
Karmapa, the, 61, 262
Keleteria, 244
Kerguelen Islands, 184–5
Kerguelen-Tremarec, Yves de, 184
Kilwa: ambassador, 119; Arab port, 102; Arab traders, 121; Cabral’s fleet, 376; Chinese ships, 102, 130; da Gama’s visit, 376, 422
Korea, 60–1, 66, 127–8, 449
Kublai Khan, 45, 53, 442
Kuroshio current, 237
lacquer, 257–9, 365
Lamu archipelago, 365–6, 450
languages, 66, 133–4, 406, 407–12
Lappacino, 396
latitude, 91–3, 181, 392, 412, 432–3
Le L’oi, 80
Le Qui Ly, 79
lead, 220, 226
Leigh, Raymond E., 316
León, Nicolás, 264
leopard seals, 182
leopards, 60, 61
Lepe, Diego de, 423
Les Saintes, 288, 290, 292, 294–5, 411–12
Leyte, 230–1, 237
Limasava, 159, 231–2
lions, 60
Little Java, 187, 225
Liu-Chia-Chang, inscription, 111, 112, 297
Liu Daxia, 84, 111
llamas, 199, 272
Lockwood, Lieutenant, 350
longitude: adjusting for error, 131, 178; calculation of, 367–8, 371–8; Cantino chart, 367, 375–7; Chinese navigation, 92–3, 130–1, 178–9, 181–2, 367–8, 392, 452–3; Columbus’s navigation, 412
Lourenço Marques, 113
Lui Chi’ih, 62
lunar eclipse, 368, 370–5, 453
Ma He, see Zheng He
Ma Huan: account of Zheng He’s expedition, 95, 100, 137, 269, 364; on Calicut, 114–15, 116–17, 260, 268; on coconuts, 102; departure from treasure fleet, 117–18; lists of goods, 197–8; on Malacca, 103; publication of work, 95
Ma Tsu, 71, 95, 105, 220
McCrone, Walter, 347
McCrone Associates, 347
McDermott, Joseph, 127
McIntosh, Sir Ian, 125, 140
madder, 259
Madeira, 383–5, 399–400, 416
Magellan, Ferdinand: career, 424; circumnavigation, 34, 172, 230, 325, 437; ‘discoveries’, 38, 138, 171, 456; food supply, 97; knowledge of Magellan Strait, 173, 424, 437, 452; leadership, 173, 416; in Limasava, 159, 231; navigation, 452; in Patagonia, 148, 150, 151; pepper cargo, 232–3; Philippines food supplies, 159–60, 240, 443, 445; route, 230–1; ships, 452; South American food supplies, 156; South American journey, 197; Toscanelli charts, 397–8
Magellan, Strait of: on Behain’s maps, 173, 397–8; Chinese discovery, 171, 190; Columbus’s knowledge of, 426; Magellan’s knowledge of, 173, 424, 437, 452; Magellan’s passage, 34, 171, 172–4, 416, 437; on Piri Reis map, 148–50; on World Map (1428), 138, 139, 395
Mahogany Ship, 188–9, 206, 318, 450
maize: Chinese introduction of, 445–6, 450; in Philippines, 159, 200, 233, 240, 248, 443, 445; tools for grinding, 159–60, 200, 268
Malabar coast, 117, 375
Malacca: accounts of, 102–5; ambassadors, 64; Calicut communications, 114; Chinese base, 100, 102, 103; Chinese overlordship, 60, 102; da Gama’s voyage, 422; Hong Bao’s fleet, 163, 190; journey time, 70; monsoon winds, 99–100; Portuguese conquest, 424; Straits, 101, 389; trading port, 60, 100–1; women, 103–4; Zheng He’s fleet at, 100, 104–6
Malaysia, 60, 117, 186, 190
Maldives, 105, 375
Malindi: ambassadors, 64; Arab port, 102; Cabral’s voyage, 376; Chinese base, 375; da Gama’s voyage, 376, 422; giraffe presentation, 366
Mamluk sultans, 115, 139, 397
Manchuria, 61, 449
mandarins, 49–50, 58, 80, 82
Manifold, Mrs, 189
Manuel I, King of Portugal, 423
Mao Kun: date, 118; Ha-bu-er island, 185; position of treasure fleets, 124, 137; routes on, 121; survival, 118; translation, 118
Maoris, 210, 214, 318, 446
Marie-Galante, 286, 288
Marino, Ruggiero, 427
Martellus, Henricus, 428–9
Martellus maps, 428–33
Massachusetts, 333–8
Master Bentou, 67
Matadi Falls, Congo, 136, 137, 210, 334, 337
Mauro, Fra: da Conti connection, 123; depiction of Cape of Good Hope, 122–3; depiction of junk, 122, 124, 128; distance shown from Portugal to China, 429; on Garbin, 123, 127, 128, 136, 137; on Isole Verde, 122, 131, 132, 135, 137; on ‘obscured islands’, 122, 137, 146, 174; in Venice, 284
Mayan civilization, 248, 249–53, 265–6
Mecca, 83
Medina, Pedro de, 393
Men and Women, Isles of, 123
Mena, Ramón, 265
Mendoza, Vélez de, 423
Merrimack River, 337
metal work, 261–3
Mexico: chickens, 248, 265; Chinese presence, 265–6, 267, 269; Jucutácato picture, 227, 263–4; porcelain, 198, 253, 268; pre-Columbian voyages, 199
Mills, Captain, 188–9
Mindanao, 230–1
Ming dynasty: capital, 55; ceramics, 227, 241, 247, 317, 364, 366, 441, 450; cotton, 446–7; end of, 84; exports, 199; Japanese studies, 127; military defeat, 80; mortar, 332; Needham’s studies, 355; observatories, 222; origins, 45; silk, 441
mining, 217–22, 261
mirrors, 95, 262–3, 264
Mogadishu, 64, 119, 376
Moluccas, 100
Mombasa, 64, 113, 376, 422
Monclaro, Father, 318, 365
Mongols: campaigns against, 46, 47, 80–1; cotton growing, 447; defeat, 45–6; expulsion, 47, 54, 61; Kangnido map, 128; Zhu Di’s parentage, 48
monsoons, 94, 99–100
Montezuma II, Emperor, 198
Moors, 385–6, 405, 428
Moskoke people, 323
mountain lions, 150, 170
Mowat, Farley, 351
Münster, Sebastian, 388
Muscovy, 272, 356
mylodons, 152–3, 209, 222, 272
Nanjing: capital relocation, 55, 59; conference (2002), 118; imperial court, 49–50, 62, 114; language school, 66; mineral supplies, 316; shipyards, 51, 316; Zheng He Museum, 270; Zheng He’s position, 83; Zhou Man’s return, 237; Zhu Di’s conquest, 48–9, 50
Nares, George, 350
Narragansett Bay, 325, 326, 328, 333, 335, 336
navigation: Arab, 128, 377, 392–3; Chinese,
89–93, 120, 181, 367–9, 372–7, 392, 452; Portuguese, 91–2, 376, 392–3, 412–13; see also Canopus, latitude, longitude, Pole Star, Southern Cross
Nayarit people, 363
Neahkahnie Beach, 239
Needham, Joseph, 265, 355
Nestorian Christians, 115
New Guinea, 200
New Mexico, 248
New Zealand: animals, 209; Chinese presence, 84, 209–14, 318, 449, 450; Cook’s voyages, 434, 446; sweet potatoes, 446; wrecks, 209–10, 212, 214, 217, 450; Zhou Man’s voyage, 208–14
Newcastle, Australia, 203
Newfoundland, HMS, 113, 119, 132, 364
Newport Round Tower, Rhode Island, 328–33, 370
Nicholas V, Pope, 350–1, 354
Ning Hsien Wang (Chu Chuan), 270
Noli, Antonio da, 134
Norfolk Island, 200, 208
Norsemen, 330, 333, 348, 351
North Pole, 89, 347, 354, 355–6
North Salem, 337
oak, European, 210
‘obscured islands’, 122, 137, 141, 146, 174
observation platforms, 222, 374
observatories, 368–70
Oliver, John, 374–5
Olmecs, 248–9, 250
Orinoco delta, 146, 158, 424
ostriches, 60, 117, 122
otters, 97, 209, 222
Owen, Richard, 152
Oxford, Edmund Harley, Earl of, 229
Pacific, Chinese bases, 451
Paiva, Alfonso de, 364
Pakal, King, 251–3
Palenque, 251–3
Panama, 247, 269
Pandanan, wreck, 267–9, 450
papayas, 248, 443
Parkinson, Sydney, 436
Patagonia: animals, 150, 151–3, 170, 209; food supply, 170; inhabitants, 160, 190; landfall, 146; landscape, 148, 160; maps of, 32, 34, 148–50, 153, 158, 160, 174; size, 155, 183
Pate, 365–6
Pedra do Letreiro, 134–6, 334, 336, 337, 450
Pedro, Dom, of Portugal: cartography, 413, 435; da Conti connection, 396, 437; education, 395; Fra Mauro’s work, 121, 123; knowledge of Chinese voyages, 123–4; travels, 394–5; Treviso estates, 413; World Map (1428), 138–9, 395, 398, 405, 421, 437
Penhallow, William, 331
pepper, 82, 116, 117, 232–3, 331
Perestrello, Bartolomeu, 384
Perestrello, Felipa, 426
Perry Point, 335
Perth, wrecks, 205, 206
Peru, 156, 158, 199–200, 269, 454
Philippa, Queen, 385–6
Philippines: Chinese presence, 232, 233, 237; currents, 200; Magellan’s expedition, 159, 200, 230–3, 443; maize, 159, 200, 233, 240, 248, 443, 445; wrecks, 212, 267–9, 450
Phillips, Sir Thomas, 29, 284
Pigafetta, Antonio: account of Magellan’s Philippines visit, 159, 172, 231, 233; diary, 172–3, 398; on Limasava, 231–2; on Magellan Strait, 173
pineapples, 443, 447
Pinzón, Vicente Yañez, 423
Piri Reis map: animals on, 148, 150, 151, 153; authenticity, 436, 449; composition, 140, 181; depiction of Antarctica, 155, 176, 178–9, 182, 301; depiction of Brazil, 148, 424; depiction of ice, 206; depiction of South America, 301; notes on, 427; Patagonia, 149, 151, 153, 155, 160, 174; Portuguese names, 285; Rotz chart comparison, 186, 206; scale, 160; southern part, 148
Pisa, Council of (1409), 395
Pius II, Pope, 355
Pizarro, Francisco, 157, 454
Pizzigano, Zuane: Atlantic islands on chart, 29–30, 31, 284–5, 406, 411–14, 426; authenticity of chart, 284, 436; Chinese voyages, 37; date of chart, 29, 406; identification of Atlantic islands, 288–9, 295–7, 426
plants: Chinese knowledge, 67–9; European knowledge, 69; indigenous to one continent carried to another, 38, 156, 240, 409–11, 442–8
Poggio Bracciolini, Giovanni Francesco, 115, 123–4, 228–9
Pole Star (Polaris): Canopus substitute, 161–3, 175; Chinese navigation, 89, 91, 118–20, 161–3, 302; Chinese observations, 369; Portuguese navigation, 394, 412–13
Polo, Marco: in Calicut, 114; in China, 202; on Christian states, 399; Columbus’s copy, 427; on Greater Java, 202; on Indies customs, 375; on Zaiton, 330–1
polynyas, 352–3, 356
Ponce de León, Juan, 309, 316
poppy seeds, 268
porcelain: Chinese in Africa, 364, 365, 422, 450; Chinese distribution, 38, 441; Chinese gifts of, 64; Chinese trade, 52, 104, 232; Cholula, 198–9, 253, 268; Ming, 227, 241, 247, 268, 317, 364, 366, 441; in Philippines, 232
Port Elizabeth, 113
portolan lines, 160
Portugal: Antilia expedition, 31, 285, 403–5, 414–15, 426; Arab influence, 387–9; Azores colony, 415–16, 421; Bojador expedition, 416–17; Cape of Good Hope voyages, 325, 421–2, 424, 427, 430; da Conti connection, 396–9, 413, 436; Dom Pedro’s map, 398, see also World Map (1428); Dom Pedro’s travels, 394–5; Guadeloupe expedition, 412–13; Henry the Navigator, 385–8; Indian Ocean expeditions, 376, 430; Madeira colonization, 383–4, 399–400; Magellan’s voyage, 397–8, 424–5; Malacca conquest, 424; navigation, 91–2, 376, 392–3, 412–13; Puerto Rico settlement, 403–6, 412, 414, 426; Sagres establishment, 389–90; ship design, 391–2; South American expeditions, 423–4
Portuguese language, 406, 407–9
Powers, Stephen, 245–7
Ptolemy, 91, 187, 368, 389, 395–6
Pu He Ri, 67
Puccioni, N., 366
Puerto Rico: Antilia identification, 30, 295–9, 403–12, 414–15, 426; climate, 414; Columbus’s visit, 403; Pizzigano chart, 413, 426; plants, 412; Portuguese settlement, 403, 414, 416, 426; size, 413
purple dye, 260–1
Qazami, Hama Allah Moustawfi, 389
Qin dynasty, 441
Qin Shi Huangdi, 54
Qing dynasty, 84
Razak, Abdul, 114
Regiomontanus, 393
Resolution, HMS, 323
Rhode Island, 326, 328–33, 370
rice, 96–7, 244–5, 247, 444–5, 446
Roaring Forties, 125, 183, 185
Rorqual, HMS, 223, 267, 288, 292
Rosellia, 414
roses, 71, 240, 248, 443
Rotz, Jean: authenticity of chart, 436, 449; Boke of Idrography, 186, 225; British government ownership of chart, 186; depiction of Auckland and Campbell islands, 206–7, 217; depiction of Australia, 186, 187–8, 190, 203, 206–7, 219, 222–3, 224–6, 227, 435; depiction of Great Barrier Reef, 224; depiction of Philippines, 230, 237; depiction of Spice Islands, 229–30; Dieppe school, 186; names, 285; Pandanan wreck, 267; Piri Reis comparison, 186, 206; source, 229
Royal Geographical Society, 241, 272, 406–7
Ruapuke Ship, 209, 212, 214, 270
Ruapuke stone, 210, 212, 228, 337, 450
rudders, 70, 204, 206, 270
Russian River, 245–6
Ruz Lhuillier, Alberto, 252
Ryukoku University, 127
Sacramento River, 242–6, 268, 445
Sagres, 389–90, 393–4, 407, 437
Sahagún, Bernardino de, 248, 261
Sancho I, King of Portugal, 385
Santa Catarina, 210
Santa María, 294
Santo Antão, 133, 137, 281, 343
Sargasso Sea, 403
Sarteano, Alberto de, 396
Satanazes, island of: Guadeloupe identification, 30, 31–2, 289–92, 295, 411–13, 414; maps of, 406; name, 287–8; on Pizzigano chart, 29–30, 31–2, 284
Savannah River, 323–4
Saya, island of, 29, 284–5, 288–9, 290, 295, 411
Sayre, Edward V., 314
sea levels, 299–300
Schlederman, Peter, 351
Schöner, Johannes, 238
Senegal, 131
Seychelles, 113, 375
Shackleton, Ernest, 353
Shah Rukh, King of Persia, 77
Shan-Hai Jing, 202
Shang dynasties, 257
Sheng
Hui, 67
shipbuilding, 93–4, 315–16, 452–3
Shu Lao, 228
Shutesbury stone, 337
Siam, 60
Sierra Leone, 113
Sigismund, Emperor, 386
silk: Chinese distribution, 38, 232–3, 365, 450, 452; Chinese dress, 63, 441; Chinese gifts of, 64; Chinese trade, 52, 104; sails, 65, 71
Silk Road, 139, 241, 326, 397, 449
silver, 82, 218
Skelton, R.A., 349, 429
slaves, 121
Sofala: Cabral’s fleet, 376; Chinese fleets at, 119, 120, 124, 137; Chinese porcelain, 364; da Gama’s visit, 376, 422; voyage from, 123; voyage to, 119
Soligo, Cristobal, 414, 426
Song dynasty, 52, 62, 330, 366, 367, 441
South Georgia, 183
South Pole, 176, 178, 181, 376
South Shetland Islands, 34, 155, 179, 182, 183
Southern Cross: locating, 180, 181, 190, 363; navigation by, 36, 120, 161, 178, 318; polar navigation, 176; position of, 161, 181
Spice Islands: Chinese trade, 363; da Gama’s voyage, 422; Hong Bao’s fleet, 190, 231; Malacca trade, 100, 104; Magellan’s voyage, 173, 232; ocean route, 139, 325, 397, 422; overland route, 139, 326; Zhou Man’s fleet, 163, 229–33, 237
Sri Lanka, 64, 105, 117, 120, 133, 375
stone(s): carved, 38, 134–6, 210, 333–4, 336–7, 450; Chinese inscriptions, 111–12, 120–1, 133; dwellings, 335–6; in Massachusetts, 336–7, 338
Sui dynasty, 202
Sumatra, 60, 64, 106, 190
sweet potatoes, 248, 442, 443, 446
Tafur, Pedro, 116, 334
Tamerlane, Emperor, 32, 53–4, 55–6, 59, 77
Tang dynasty, 54, 113, 124, 332, 364, 441
Tanggu: fleet at, 65–71, 137; ice-bound port, 175
Taoism, 228
taros, 446
Tasman, Abel, 190
Tasman Sea, 208
Tasmania, 190, 206, 223
Taunton River, 333–4, 335, 337
teak, 57, 59, 189, 209, 239, 267
Ternate, see Spice Islands
Thien Kung Kai Wu, 57
Thomas, Saint, 115, 396
Tibet, 61, 262
Tidore, see Spice Islands
Tierra del Fuego, 147, 148, 151, 171, 174–5
time, measurement of, 370
tobacco, 443
Toghon Temur, Emperor, 46
Toltecs, 250
tomatoes, 248
Torre do Tombo, 31, 34, 140, 285
Toscanelli, Paolo: da Conti meeting, 397; letter to Columbus, 397, 426, 427, 433, 437; Magellan’s use of charts, 398; map (1474), 189, 412
Tuamotu archipelago, 199
Tyndale, Norman B., 272
Ulugh Begh, Prince, 55
uranium, 226
Urness, Carol, 406