The Gap

by Thomas Suddendorf

177chimpanzee and macaque infants: Ferrari et al., 2006; Myowa-Yamakoshi et al., 2004.

  177mirror neuron system was first: Rizzolatti et al., 1996.

  177Mike Noad observed: Noad et al., 2000.

  177in other humpback populations: Garland et al., 2011.

  178Off the coast of Brazil: Morete et al., 2003.

  178Louis Herman has shown: Herman, 2002.

  178notable exceptions are the great apes: Byrne & Russon, 1998; Russon & Galdikas, 1993.

  178mirror everything the chimpanzee: Nielsen et al., 2005.

  178documented in other great apes: Haun & Call, 2008.

  178chimpanzee Viki to copy: Hayes & Hayes, 1952.

  178“do as I do” paradigm: Byrne & Tanner, 2006; Custance et al., 1995; Miles et al., 1996.

  178Similar attempts with monkeys: Mitchell & Anderson, 1993.

  178(Footnote 15) One study did find: Paukner et al., 2009.

  178presented chimpanzees with a puzzle box: Whiten et al., 1996.

  179in other experiments chimpanzees: Whiten, 2005.

  179In a seminal study Victoria Horner: Horner & Whiten, 2005.

  180Figure 8.2: Photo reprinted from Nielsen & Widjojo, 2011, with permission of Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

  180(Footnote 16) “transmission biases”: e.g., Boyd et al., 2011.

  181Mark Nielsen recently examined: Nielsen & Tomaselli, 2010.

  181teaching in the animal kingdom: Hoppitt et al., 2008.

  182Adult whales have been observed: Guinet & Bouvier, 1995.

  182Christophe Boesch: Boesch, 1991.

  183In a recent study chimpanzees: Dean et al., 2012.

  Chapter 9: Right and Wrong

  185Of all the differences between: Darwin, 1871, p. 97.

  186Johann Kremer: Johann Kremers Tagebuch in Auszügen, http://auschwitz-ag.org/unternehmen_auschwitz/6.2.7B.htm.

  186(Footnote 2) Alfred North Whitehead: Whitehead, 1956, p. 145.

  187According to Frans de Waal: de Waal, 2006.

  187“cold” and “hot” processes: e.g., McIlwain, 2003.

  187Michael Tomasello and colleagues: e.g., Tomasello, 2009.

  188clear signs of sympathy: Zahn-Waxler et al., 1979.

  188They initially require much prompting: Svetlova et al., 2010.

  188choices that avoid inequality: e.g., Fehr et al., 2008.

  189Thomas Hobbes observed: Pinker, 2011a.

  190what de Waal referred to as level 2: de Waal, 2006.

  191“In the last analysis, every kind: Einstein, 1950, p. 71.

  191Most groups prohibit: Haidt, 2007; Mikhail, 2007.

  191(Footnote 5) Game theory: Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981.

  192Ernst Fehr: e.g. Fehr & Gachter, 2002.

  192people are willing to punish: Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Henrich et al., 2006.

  192studies on hunter-gatherer societies: Hill et al., 2009.

  192experiments in economics: Fehr & Fischbacher, 2004.

  192We believe in a better world: e.g., Harre, 2011.

  193treat members of their own group differently: Hewstone et al., 2002.

  193rituals, ethnic signaling, and other: Hill et al., 2009.

  194Richard Shweder and colleagues: Shweder et al., 1987.

  194With the Enlightenment: Pinker, 2011a.

  195As man advances in civilisation: Darwin, 1871, pp. 122–123.

  195Universal Declaration of Human Rights: See http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.

  195De Waal’s third level: de Waal, 2006.

  196and later by Lawrence Kohlberg: Kohlberg, 1963.

  196imagine a situation in which you: Mikhail, 2007.

  196moral intuitions often precede: e.g., Haidt, 2007.

  196universal moral grammar: Mikhail, 2007; for a skeptical response, see Sterelny, 2010.

  196(Footnote 7) These draw in part: Trivers, 1971.

  197reasoning is marred by certain biases: Gilbert & Wilson, 2007.

  197motivated to choose future-directed actions: Suddendorf, 2011.

  198the marshmallow test: Mischel et al., 1989.

  198Differences in children’s self-control: Casey et al., 2011.

  198(Footnote 8) Darwin wrote: Darwin, 1871, p.123.

  200in apparently self-deceptive ways: von Hippel & Trivers, 2011.

  200remember their own good behavior better: D’Argembeau & Van der Linden, 2008.

  200(Footnote 10) To call this self-deception: Pinker, 2011b.

  201The fact that man knows: Twain, 1906, p. vi.

  201(Footnote 11) A similar social explanation: Suddendorf, 2011.

  202Jane Goodall found: Goodall, 1986.

  202At 1710 Melissa, with: Goodall, 1986, p. 351.

  203Chimpanzee infanticide may happen: Murray et al., 2007.

  204comfort others who are suffering: de Waal, 1996; Goodall, 1986.

  204Researchers analyzed spontaneous: de Waal & Aureli, 1996.

  204Chimpanzees’ physiological responses: Parr, 2001.

  204rodents are sensitive to pain of: Bartal et al., 2011; Rice & Gainer, 1962.

  204the gorilla was hand-reared: Silk, 2010.

  205stories of helping, such as Washoe: Fouts, 1997.

  205fundamentally good-natured: de Waal, 1996.

  205subsequently help each other: Yamamoto et al., 2009.

  205in one study chimpanzees: Melis et al., 2008.

  205Chimpanzees also help humans: Warneken & Tomasello, 2009.

  205Mothers rarely give: Ueno & Matsuzawa, 2004.

  205share because they are harassed: Gilby, 2006.

  205(Footnote 15) One study suggests that: Gomes & Boesch, 2009.

  206chimpanzees failed to help other: Silk et al., 2005.

  206study reported some prosocial choices: Horner et al., 2011.

  206marmosets, tamarins, and capuchin monkeys: e.g., Burkart et al., 2007.

  206Limits to sharing severely restricts: Melis et al., 2006b.

  206Interestingly, three-year-old: Hamann et al., 2011.

  206food and alarm calls: Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990; Hauser & Marler, 1993.

  207“a suite of interrelated: Bekoff & Pierce, 2009, p.7.

  207Recent work on rhesus macaques: Mahajan et al., 2011.

  207requires “shared intentionality,”: Tomasello, 2009.

  207Shirley Strum: Strum, 2008; see also von Rohr et al., 2011.

  208Another prominent case: Brosnan & de Waal, 2003. De Waal (2006) discusses fairness in primates as part of level 1 morality.

  208work out of frustration: Roma et al., 2006; Wynne, 2004; but see van Wolkenten et al., 2007.

  208Other studies have found some: Brosnan et al., 2005; Range et al., 2009; but see Brauer et al., 2009.

  208primates breaking up fights: de Waal, 1996; Goodall, 1986.

  208“community concern”: de Waal, 2006.

  208In one study rhesus monkeys: Hauser & Marler, 1993.

  208(Footnote 18) only humans blush: Darwin, 1873.

  209precursors of social norms: von Rohr et al., 2011.

  209A moral being is one: Darwin, 1871, p. 610.

  209level 3 clearly sets humans apart: Bekoff & Pierce, 2009; de Waal, 2006.

  209normative self-government: Korsgaard, 2006.

  210lexigrams “good” and “bad”: Lyn et al., 2008.

  210should be given legal personhood: Wise, 2000.

  211delay receiving a small reward: Dufour et al., 2007; Rosati et al., 2007.

  211In one study chimpanzees waited: Evans & Beran, 2007.

  211the Great Ape Project: Cavalieri & Singer, 1995.

  212in 1386 a court: Beirne, 1994.

  212needs and preferences into account: e.g., Stamp Dawkins, 2012.

  212Steven Pinker has documented: Pinker, 2011a.

  Chapter 10: Mind the Gap

  215[Man] owes his success: Russell, 1954, p. 1.

  216rats can cognitively sweep ahead: Johnson & Redish, 2007.

  217recorded during sleep and rest: Wilson & McNaughton, 1994; Karlsson & Frank, 2009.


  217the maze layout and its options: Gupta et al., 2010.

  217Great apes have a basic capacity to imagine: Suddendorf & Whiten, 2001.

  217not entirely unlike (adult) scientists: Gopnik, 2012.

  217They begin to deploy counterfactual reasoning: Harris et al., 1996; Rafetseder et al., 2010.

  218recursion is uniquely human: Corballis, 2011.

  218consciousness is a broadcasting system: Baars, 2005.

  218(Footnote 1) The theater metaphor does not: see Dennett & Kinsbourne, 1992.

  219improve the accuracy of their mental scenarios: Gilbert, 2006.

  219Humans have taken this sociality: Frith & Frith, 2010.

  219As Michael Tomasello and colleagues have: Tomasello, 2009.

  222sexual selection advantage: Miller, 1998.

  223on the evolution of our minds: Nesse & Berridge, 1997.

  224“enculturated,” perform slightly better: Tomasello et al., 1993b.

  224No other animal passes: Herschel, 1830, pp. 1–2.

  224(Footnote 5) It is not entirely clear: de Waal et al., 2008.

  225Human brains grow more outside the womb: DeSilva & Lesnik, 2006.

  225Stephen Jay Gould has argued: Gould, 1978.

  225anthropologist Barry Bogin: Bogin, 1999; Locke & Bogin, 2006.

  225brain peaking in mass: Cabana et al., 1993.

  226Chimpanzee birth intervals: Hill et al., 2009.

  226cortical grey matter becomes thinner: Huttenlocher, 1990.

  226white matter increases: Paus et al., 1999.

  226Executive self-control gradually improves: Luna et al., 2004.

  227cooperative breeding: Hill et al., 2009.

  227(Footnote 7) some aspects of the brain: e.g., Lebel et al., 2012.

  228low survival rates: Lancaster & Lancaster, 1983.

  228While some great apes outlive: Walker & Herndon, 2008.

  228Grandmothers provide a range of support: Hawkes, 2003; but see Hill et al., 2009.

  228helps propagate genes: Lahdenpera et al., 2004; Sear & Mace, 2008.

  228surviving to age seventy and beyond: Gurven & Kaplan, 2007.

  228notions of wisdom: Staudinger & Gluck, 2011.

  229“the cognitive niche”: Pinker, 2010; Tooby & DeVore, 1987.

  229humans frequently caused mass extinctions: e.g., Holdaway & Jacomb, 2000; Turney et al., 2008.

  229(Footnote 8) marmosets breed in small groups: Tardif, 1997.

  Chapter 11: The Real Middle Earth

  232Australian Aboriginals have: Flannery, 1994.

  234Analyses of the Y chromosomes: Thomson et al., 2000.

  234Analyses of mitochondrial DNA: Cann et al., 1987.

  234The oldest anatomically modern: McDougall et al., 2005.

  234(Footnote 1) A recent study challenges: Cruciani et al., 2011.

  234(Footnote 1) Genghis Khan: Zerjal et al., 2003.

  235Figure 11.1: Derevianko, 2012; Mellars, 2006; Soares et al., 2009; Stanford et al., 2013.

  235the birds rapidly went extinct: Holdaway & Jacomb, 2000.

  235the ecosystem collapsed: Diamond, 2005.

  236some interbreeding with the newcomers: Green et al., 2010; Reich et al., 2011.

  236Australopithecus africanus: Dart, 1925.

  237Some paleoanthropologists are more inclined: Robson & Wood, 2008.

  237A typical starting point: Suddendorf, 2004.

  237(Footnote 3) Even in biology there is: Groves, 2012b.

  238Figure 11.2: Groves, 2012a; Robson & Wood, 2008; Stanford et al., 2013.

  239initially split 7 million years ago: Patterson et al., 2006.

  239(Footnote 4) the aquatic ape theory: Morgan, 1982; for a critique, see Langdon, 2006.

  240more similar to that of the gorilla: Scally et al., 2012.

  240Sahelanthropus tchadensis: Brunet et al., 2002.

  240cranial capacity of: Unless otherwise specified hominin cranial capacities throughout this chapter are based on Robson & Wood, 2008.

  240Orronin tugenensis: Senut et al., 2001.

  240Ardipithecus kadabba: Haile-Selassie, 2001.

  240Ardipithecus ramidus: White et al., 2009. For cranial capacity, see Suwa et al., 2009.

  240perhaps evolved independently: Kivell & Schmitt, 2009.

  240derived from bipedal clambering: Thorpe et al., 2007.

  240East Side Story: Coppens, 1994.

  241capable of power and precision grips: Young, 2003.

  242“man the hunted”: Hart & Sussman, 2005.

  242famously called Lucy: Johanson, 2004.

  243the lunate sulcus: Dart, 1925.

  243fossilized footprints: Leakey & Hay, 1979.

  243(Footnote 7) In a personal history: Holloway, 2008.

  243(Footnote 8) 3.4-million-year-old foot: Haile-Selassie et al., 2012.

  244The pubic louse, DNA comparison: Reed et al., 2007.

  244louse that lives in clothes: Toups et al., 2011.

  2443.39-million-year-old bones: McPherron et al., 2010; but see Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2012.

  244oldest stone tools: Semaw, 2000; Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2005.

  244Australopithecus garhi: Asfaw et al., 1999.

  244Australopithecus bahrelghazali: Brunet et al., 1996.

  245Kenyanthropus platyops: Leakey et al., 2001.

  245Australopithecus sediba: Berger et al., 2010.

  246probably ate a variety of foods: Ungar & Sponheimer, 2011.

  246appeared around 2.4 million years ago: Stedman et al., 2004.

  246Homo habilis: Leakey et al., 1964.

  2471.95-million-year-old butchering site: Braun et al., 2010.

  247tools were of good throwing size: Cannell, 2002.

  247the hand of early Homo: Young, 2003.

  248Homo rudolfensis: McHenry & Coffing, 2000.

  248really began with Homo erectus: Wood & Collard, 1999.

  248Their footprints are essentially: Bennett et al., 2009.

  248Nariokotome Boy: Brown et al., 1985.

  249more quickly than modern humans: Graves et al., 2010.

  249(Footnote 11) split into several species: e.g., Groves, 2012a.

  249(Footnote 12) Robson and Wood: Robson & Wood, 2008.

  250consumed more meat: Stanford et al., 2013.

  250efficient long-distance running: Bramble & Lieberman, 2004.

  250Reduced fur and whole-body: Ruxton & Wilkinson, 2011.

  250grandmother effect: O’Connell et al., 1999.

  250(Footnote 13) Overheating has also been: Falk, 1990.

  251cooking of food was the crucial step: Wrangham, 2009.

  251evidence for early fire use: Goren-Inbar et al., 2004; Berna et al., 2012.

  251(Footnote 15) evidence of heat treatment: Brown et al., 2009.

  252they are evident in Spain: Carbonell et al., 2008.

  25240,000 and 70,000 years ago: Yokoyama et al., 2008.

  25227,000 years ago: Swisher et al., 1996.

  252diversity of foods: Ungar & Sponheimer, 2011.

  252(Footnote 16) The role of refugia: Stewart & Stringer, 2012.

  2531.76 million years ago: Lepre et al., 2011.

  253tools became thinner and more: Stout, 2011.

  254aimed throwing to bring down prey: Calvin, 1982.

  254look like a Broca’s area: Wu et al., 2011.

  254Robin Dunbar highlights the role: Dunbar, 1992, 1996.

  255skull from Dmanisi: Lordkipanidze et al., 2005.

  255(Footnote 20) possibly shared intentionality: Shipton, 2010.

  256Homo antecessor: deCastro et al., 1997.

  256cooperated to bring down big game: Villa & Lenoir, 2009.

  256four-hundred-thousand-year-old spears: Thieme, 1997; see also Churchill & Rhodes, 2009.

  256In 2010 evidence for stone blades: Johnson & McBrearty, 2010.

  256From around three hundred thousand years ago: Ambrose, 2001; Lombard, 2012.

  257early as five hundred thousand years ago: Wilkins et al., 2012.

&nbs
p; 257over two hundred fossils: Stanford et al., 2013; Trinkaus, 1995.

  258pale skin and red hair: Lalueza-Fox et al., 2007.

  258up to western Siberia: Krause et al., 2007b.

  258including fish and dolphins: Stringer et al., 2008.

  258Neanderthals practiced cannibalism: Defleur et al., 1999.

  258draft sequence of their genome: Green et al., 2010.

  258DNA extracted from thirteen: Dalen et al., 2012.

  260they cared for the sick: Dettwyler, 1991.

  260Neanderthal burials: Langley et al., 2008; but see Balter, 2012a.

  260having made composite tools: Langley et al., 2008.

  260grown up more quickly: Ramirez Rozzi & Bermudez De Castro, 2004.

  260worn shells as jewelry: Zilhao et al., 2010.

  260Archaeologists are hotly debating: Balter, 2012b.

  260Philip Lieberman has long argued: Lieberman, 1991.

  260Neanderthal hyoid bone: Arensburg et al., 1990.

  260hyoid bone from an earlier archaic: Martinez et al., 2008.

  260hyoid bone of an Australopithecus aferensis: Alemseged et al., 2006.

  261version of a gene strongly implicated: Krause et al., 2007a.

  261gesturing preceded talking: Corballis, 2003.

  261modern human life history: Smith et al., 2007.

  261evidence for a fully modern human mind: e.g., d’Errico & Stringer, 2011; Lombard, 2012.

  261at Skuhl Cave: Grun et al., 2005.

  26182,000-year-old shell beads: Bouzouggar et al., 2007.

  261long-range projectile weapons: Churchill & Rhodes, 2009.

  261(Footnote 21) A mutation of the FOXP2 gene: Enard et al., 2002.

  262compound adhesives: Wadley, 2010.

  26240,000 years ago artifacts: Balter, 2012c.

  262prehistoric cave of Geissenklösterle: Balter, 2012b.

  263behavioral complexity increased: Langley et al., 2008.

  263In some instances the technologies: d’Errico & Stringer, 2011.

  263The archaeological record complicates: Lombard, 2012.

  263fossil teeth from over 700 individuals: Caspari & Lee, 2004.

  264appear to have interbred: Reich et al., 2011.

  264Homo floresiensis, tiny hominins: Brown et al., 2004.

  264debates about whether these specimens: e.g., Brown, 2012; Oxnard et al., 2010.

  264(Footnote 22) There are some problems: O’Connell et al., 1999.

  264(Footnote 23) In 2012, strange: Curnoe et al., 2012.

  265“at all times throughout the world: Darwin, 1871, p. 132.

  265conflict might select: e.g., Bowles, 2009.

  265(Footnote 25) Darwin wrote: Darwin, 1871, p. 132.

  265(Footnote 25) group selection continues to be: e.g., see http://edge.org/conversation/the-false-allure-of-group-selection#edn9.