by Lee Brainard
Dr. Goldblum arched his eyebrows in wonder, “Moons?”
The corner of Irina’s mouth turned up in an impish grin, “Yes, moons. As many have pointed out, the largest asteroid, Ceres, does not exhibit the shattered-piece look exhibited by the asteroids but instead exhibits a planet-like look. I believe it was one of the moons of the former planet. I suspect that there is at least one more, if not two or three more, orbiting the Sun as comets.”
“That idea is unique and intriguing. I don’t recall reading anywhere in the literature that some of the comets might be former moons. But I interrupted you. You were going to say something more on size distribution.”
“Yes. I was going to bring up the iron core. On top of the large fragments and possible former moons in cometary orbit, I suspect that there is also an extremely large iron core lurking out there that is approximately the size of Mercury—assuming that the core remained intact when the crust and mantle were broken up.”
Dr. Goldblum looked away and stared blankly out the window, muttering, seemingly to himself, “a planetary core the size of Mercury . . . the fragments are the mantle and the crust . . . comets include the bulk of the mid-size fragments and almost all of the large fragments . . . . . . add in the mass of the asteroids . . . add in the mass of the Trojans, Centaurs, and Hilda asteroids . . . add in the moons and TNOs.” He nodded and uttered to no one in particular, “Fascinating . . . I think that really could add up to the mass of a Mars-size planet.”
He turned to Irina and addressed her, without indicating whether he liked or disliked her theory. “Well, that would certainly resolve the missing-mass dilemma that has long haunted those who embrace the planet-explosion theory as the explanation for the origin of the asteroids and comets.”
Irina felt like wielding her wit but bit her tongue. Of course it resolves the dilemma . . . it has elegant solution and Occam’s razor written all over it. “I agree. There is no missing-mass dilemma. The mass is scattered all over the solar system—the preponderance of it in the comets.
“And this comet-strewn solar system is a dangerous solar system. There are at least a million chunks of rock larger than one kilometer in diameter hurtling around the Sun on long-period orbits. Thousands of these rocks will eventually visit Earth. These fateful encounters are programmed into the calendar of our solar system—they are only matters of time. While the next one could be hundreds of years away, it could also be just around the corner. We cannot avoid these impending disasters. Nor can we avert them—certainly not with any current technology. We can only hope that we observe trouble coming far enough in advance that we can prepare for it. Maybe we can minimize the death and destruction that would result from that fateful rendezvous. But whether prepared or unprepared, when the awful day arrives, we will watch an apocalyptic scenario unfold before our eyes—and it won’t be CGI on a movie screen.”
Dr. Gardner barked, “Are you lecturing us, young lady?”
“No sir,” Irina replied, cowering, “just emphasizing the fact that we face a very real danger.” Inwardly she groaned, Why did I have to add that CGI comment? . . . it sounded more like a prophecy preacher than a scientist . . . She reminded herself to follow her father’s advice, “Don’t try too hard. An extra olive does not make a better martini.”
While she mulled her gaffe, Dr. Gardner stood up with a vigorous movement that pushed his chair backward hard, tipping it over with a clatter on the tile floor. Without saying a word, he wheeled around and stormed out, pulling the door shut with enough vigor to let everyone know that his ego had been affronted.
Six pairs of eyes followed him out of the room. After his unceremonious exit, the committee members turned their attention back to Irina. Dr. Benson smiled and nodded to her.
Dr. Goldblum turned to Irina. “Let that be an object lesson. Are you prepared to pay the price professionally for defending a position which the majority of scientists believe is indefensible? To maintain the stony-comet position comes with a hefty price tag. Your academic capital will take a hit, you will be unpublishable, your papers will be rejected by peer-reviewed journals, your options are going to be greatly limited, and you may never find a position in the field of astronomy. You could well end up being an outcast—an unemployable pariah.”
He’s testing me . . . I think he’s considering me for his TNO program. “I understand. But if I am going to be a scientist worthy of the name, I have to follow the facts to their logical conclusion, even if that conclusion challenges the status quo. I am convinced that comets are stony bodies. I may not be as bold in the defense of this position as I should be, or as adept with the arguments as I could be, but I am committed to it. I can’t be intimidated into surrendering the point. I would rather wait on tables all my life in a truck-stop diner than sacrifice my beliefs just to curry favor or land a position.” I can’t believe I said that . . . hope it didn’t come out sounding too over the top.
“Men are going to challenge you.”
“I know. But if anyone wants to take me to task, let them at least have the decency to bring real evidence to the table—observations that support the dirty-snowball theory. Men forsake the scientific method when the only things they bring to the table are their sacred theory and crafty explanations to neutralize the evidence that challenges their sacred theory. That’s not science. That’s cultish religion.” I really went out on a limb now . . . hope I don’t end up regretting this . . . I really don’t want to work in a diner.
Dr. Goldblum retorted, with a hint of a smile, “Speaking of posing challenges to a theory, what do you do with the low densities that comets manifest, densities which suggest that their structure is more like ice cream than solid rock? Don’t those densities challenge your rocky-comet theory?”
Looks like the whole cat is coming out of the bag and not just his whiskers. “This is really a matter of observational science versus theoretical science. If we observe that a comet is composed of solid rock, yet our calculations of its density suggest that it has the density of ice cream, then something is wrong with the method we use for calculating density. In my estimation, our theory of gravity is the weak link.
“The fact is, using the supposed gravitational constant to calculate the mass of a comet will always result in masses and densities which imply that comets are composed of rock-flavored ice cream.
“I suggest that gravity is not a constant, but a variable—the electrostatic polarization of a body’s subatomic particles. Under this electric universe view, we expect to see changes in calculated mass with significant changes in environment if we calculate mass using an unchanging value for gravity. For instance, the calculated mass of a cubic kilometer of rock orbiting the Sun as a comet would be notably lower than the calculated mass of a cubic kilometer of identical rock on the surface of Earth. On the other hand, if we directly calculated the actual gravitational values—gravity being a variable—then the calculated masses for both cubes of rock would be identical.
“So, how can we definitively determine whether gravity is a constant or a variable? How can we prove whether comets have a density that is like ice cream or a density that is like . . . well . . . rock?
“Two simple physical tests would answer these questions once and for all . . . if the standard model advocates are willing to man up and face the challenge. A two-foot-long carbide-tip drill bit probing the surface on several comets would tell us whether their surfaces were solid rock or the accreted granules and dust of the dirty-snowball theory. And ground-penetrating radar employed on several comets would tell us whether their interiors were solid rock, or mysterious foam, or hollow, or methane snow. And if comets prove to be solid rock, then our theory of gravity is wrong.”
Irina looked around. The committee members, except for Dr. Goldblum, seemed shocked as if they were having a hard time digesting what they had heard. No one spoke. Once again a grin crept across his face, only this time he didn’t restrain it. Irina was nervous. Was he graciously shunting her gravity expl
anation aside as hilariously bad or was he subtly acknowledging it as worthy of consideration? She watched him for some facial or verbal clarification of his position. Nothing. That rascal . . . just like a guy . . . he persuades you to tell him your secrets . . . but won’t reveal his.
Dr. Evans broke the quiet that had settled on the group, “Your theory makes the solar system look more menacing.”
Irina’s face wrinkled in a wry smile and her eyes sparkled as she responded, “No doubt about it. If comets are actually solid rock, then they would be far more dangerous than dirty-snowball comets. I see four factors that heighten the danger they pose.
“The first is, obviously, the increased density. Assuming equal diameters, a rocky comet would release significantly more energy than a snowball comet in both impact and bolide events. The greater the mass, the more energy there is to be released.
“The second is greater size. If comets and asteroids originated together in a planetary explosion, then the size distribution of comets would be similar to that evidenced in the asteroids. This implies that the largest comets are more in keeping with the range of the largest asteroids (150 to 900 kilometers in diameter) than the range generally assumed for the largest comets (25 to 150 kilometers in diameter).
“The third is shorter orbits. If comets originated in the immediate solar system from a planetary disintegration, then their orbits would be vastly shorter than if they had their origin in the Oort Cloud. Consequently, they would cross paths with the bodies of the inner solar system on a much shorter timescale than currently assumed. Perhaps three or four times more often, if not ten times.
“The fourth is the swarm effect. If comets are actually the fragments of a planet that once orbited between Mars and Jupiter, and these fragments were all sent into orbit with the same explosion, then the bulk of the comets will likely return together in an apparent swarm that could bombard the inner solar system and Earth for decades if not centuries. We will be forewarned of the approach of this swarm, for in the decade or two prior to its arrival there will be an exponential increase in the number and size of comet events—shooting stars, debris showers, bolides, impacts, and other cometary phenomena.
“But the coming swarm of long-period comets will be the second swarm of fragments. The first swarm was comprised of short-period comets and asteroids whose orbits intersected Earth. I believe that this is the true explanation for the waves of comets, stone showers, and fire from heaven we read about in ancient history that terrified the inhabitants of Earth during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.”
Another silence fell upon the committee as they absorbed this information. The swarm aspect, in particular, caught them by surprise—an electrifying addition to their first significant exposure to the rocky-comet theory.
Dr. Benson probed the subject further, “If the stony-comet theory is true, wouldn’t that also overthrow the assumption that asteroids pose a greater threat to Earth than comets?”
Irina smiled, “It would shatter that viewpoint . . . for three significant reasons.
“First of all, asteroids tend to strike Earth with glancing blows from the side or from behind. This reduces their effective speed, which reduces the force of their impact. Comets, on the other hand, often impact Earth on more direct angles, even head-on. This increases their effective speed, which increases the force of their impact.
“Secondly, comets are typically traveling three times as fast as asteroids. This has terrifying ramifications, for the impact energy of a body increases with the square of its velocity. If a comet and an asteroid of the same size were both coming in at the same angle, the comet impact would have nine times the force of the asteroid impact.”
“Thirdly, Earth has already swept its path clear of the vast majority of the asteroids and short-period comets that intersect it—the comet barrage of the Bronze Age and Iron Age. But long-period comets have barely started testing Earth’s path. When the future barrage of comets arrives, it will be thicker and more devastating than the first wave.”
Dr. Goldblum challenged her. “I’m not as interested in the theoretical existential threat we face from comets in the distant future as I am the threat we presently face from them. Quantify the threat that we face right now on a recurring basis.”
Irina’s heart skipped a beat. She had both hoped and feared that this question might come up. With a little reticence, she replied, “During the past six hundred years we have averaged three major comet events per century, some destroying entire towns or large portions of major cities.”
Dr. Goldblum raised his eyebrows, cocked his head slightly, and looked inquisitively at Irina.
My dog used to do that when he wasn’t sure what I was doing or saying.
“Three major impacts per century? The only destructive comet event I am aware of that occurred in the past couple centuries is the well-known bolide event over Tunguska in the Siberian taiga—and that was an airburst.”
Irina felt awkward and hesitated for a moment as she framed her answer. How do you correct a man you are trying to impress? She shrugged internally and determined to say what needed to be said, even if it seemed a little gauche. “I need to clarify a point. I did not say impacts but events. Our planet has averaged three major comet events per century.
“We need to discard our artificial focus on impact events and embrace a perspective that incorporates the whole gamut of comet events. Because of this focus, many comet events have gone unrecognized as such. Men have often been puzzled over the centuries by mysterious events that caused immense destruction—showers of stones, showers of fire and sulfur, balls of plasma fire, toxicity, radioactivity, mysterious fires accompanied with electrical phenomena, and destructive red rain. They did not make any connection between the comet that passed overhead and the destruction that followed it except for the old superstition that comets are omens of evil.”
Dr. Goldblum was skeptical. “Give me a few examples of unrecognized comet events from the past two centuries that caused widespread death and destruction.”
Irina was raw nerves—excitement and nervousness were tangled up inside. “Three mysterious events occurred in the nineteenth century which cannot be explained by any known physical or meteorological phenomena, but can be readily explained if comets are electrically charged bodies.”
“The first is the New Madrid earthquake—a two-month series of quakes and shocks with the three largest occurring on December 16, 1811; January 23, 1812; and February 7, 1812. The first occurred while the great comet of 1811 was yet visible in the skies. When the first quake hit, the ground rolled like the waves of the sea. Shortly after it hit, a cloud of charcoal-like substance descended, darkening the skies till it was darker than night and filling the air with a sulfur-like odor, which made men nauseous. The dust was so thick it left men with shortness of breath and prevented their lamps from being lit. Earthquake lights and explosion-like flashes appeared everywhere. Lightning and sparks ran along the ground. Metal objects attached themselves to stone walls as if magnetism was involved. And survivors recalled feeling a tingling sensation in their bodies. I suspect that all of these phenomena are to be traced to Earth passing through the dust and electrical fields of the tail of the comet.
“The second is the Great Moscow Fire, which began on September 15, 1812, as Napoleon’s advance troops entered the city. Witnesses were awakened by a bright ball of light descending from heaven which illuminated the entire city. Stone buildings, including the palace, were almost instantly turned into piles of ash and rubble. The ball of fire expanded outward in every direction, destroying many buildings and filling ditches with stone rubble—some of the ditches were over ten meters deep and thirty meters across. Many of the French soldiers died instantly. Many others died from an unknown ailment over the following week with symptoms that suggest radiation poisoning: bloody diarrhea, extreme weakness in the limbs, hair falling out, nails falling off, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and ulcers. Their horses died too, covered with ulcers
and sores. To this day the radiation levels in Moscow are very high. The destruction and death appear to have been caused by a meteorite that was both flammable and radioactive—likely a fragment of the Pons-Brook Comet which came down burning and exploded upon impact.
“The third is the Midwest fires, which started on October 8, 1871—most notably the Peshtigo fire and the Chicago fire. The Peshtigo fire started with a blinding aerial flash and thunderous detonation followed by balls of fire falling from the sky, which ignited hundreds of fires at the same time. But buildings also burst into flames when no fire was nearby. The flames were so hot that stone buildings were turned into piles of calcinated ash within minutes. A rain of choking red dust and sand followed the fireballs. Over two thousand people died within a few minutes, many of them exhibiting no indication of burning, but only evidence of suffocation from lack of oxygen. Some of the victims were found with metal objects on their body or in their pockets that were melted, though they themselves were unburned.
“The standard explanation is that the wind turned a few small fires into a blazing inferno, but this explanation does not explain all the facts. First of all, while the day was breezy, the phenomenon occurred in the evening after the wind had died. Secondly, some of the phenomena cannot be explained by a typical forest fire—the red dust, buildings catching fire when no fire was nearby, the calcination of stone buildings, and the fusing of metal on unburned victims.
“Likewise, the Chicago fire began with balls of fire falling from heaven. These fiery missiles were accompanied with odd phenomena including colorful flames running along the cornices of the buildings, glowing discharges from the sharp edges of the roofs, a rain of red dust, and spontaneous combustion where no fireballs had fallen. The fires burned extremely hot—many of the flames were blue. Iron ingots melted and flowed like a stream into Lake Michigan. Iron, glass, and granite were melted together into grotesque lumps. Six-story-high stone buildings caught fire and turned into piles of ash in five minutes. Even fire-proof materials were fused together.
