by DAVID KAHN
507 German strategy from Japanese sources: Marshall at PHA, 3:1132.
508 loss of military attache code: PHA, 3:1133.
508 Oshima Westwall message: I have heard this story from a number of sources, so that I believe it is true, but I have not been able to confirm it. Japanese archives report that Oshima’s dispatches were destroyed in air raids (Mrs. Michi Freeman, letters, March 9 and July 15, 1964); Oshima himself burned all his papers and does not recall any such report (letter, June 5, 1964). In addition, General Sir John F. M. Whitely, intelligence chief for Eisenhower, does not recall the intercept (letter, August 16, 1964). However, entries in the OKW Kriegstagebuch for October 23 and November 4, 1943, refer to Oshima’s tour.
508 FORTITUDE cover plan: Major L. F. Ellis, Victory in the West, I: The Battle of Normandy, United Kingdom Military Series (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1962), 103, 127; Bernard Fergusson, The Watery Maze: The Story of Combined Operations (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961), 333-334.
509 “The final result”: Churchill, V, 596.
509 “the enemy will probably”: quoted in L. F. Ellis, 323.
509 “to meet a very”: Bradley, letter, January 7, 1965. General Lucius D. Clay, letter, January 18, 1965, could not recall any cases in which solutions played a critical role and said that cryptanalytic results “were not too important.”
509 849th: Dr. Joseph S. Schick, letter, March 4, 1965.
509 pre-Bulgesolutions: Edgar C. Reinke, letter, February 2, 1964.
509 failure to heed intelligence: Milton Shulman, Defeat in the West (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1947), 223.
509 “young, trigger-smart”: Colonel Robert S. Allen, Lucky Forward (New York: Vanguard Press, 1947), 56.
510 TYPEX: Eyraud interview; Kunze interview.
510 SIGABA never solved: Harris, 90, 344-345, 582.
510 loss of the SIGABA: Thomas M. Johnson, “Search for the Stolen Sigaba,” Army, XII (February, 1962), 50-55; Frederick Ayer, Jr., Yankee G-Man (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1957), 146-150; Col. David G. Erskine, letter, November 18, 1963.
Chapter 16 CENSORS, SCRAMBLERS, AND SPIES
I am grateful to Colonel Shaw and Walter Koenig for reading the parts of the manuscript dealing with their work and for suggesting corrections.
513 World War I censorship: Childs Cipher Papers, IV, and “Liverpool Codes,” NA, RG 98, contain photocopies of cryptic messages intercepted by British censors in World War I.
513 Joe K: Hyde, 79-83; Alan Hynd, Passport to Treason: The Inside Story of Spies in America (New York: Robert M. McBride & Co., 1943), 148, 181; Michael Sayers and Albert E. Kahn, Sabotage! The Secret War Against America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 32-40, for reproductions of the secret-ink letters; Don Whitehead, The FBI Story (New York: Random House), 193-194, 344.
513 Luning: Theodore F. Koop, Weapon of Silence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 6-15.
515 14,462: Koop, 10.
515 90 buildings, 1,000,000 letters: Mary Knight, “The Secret War of Censors vs. Spies,” The Reader’s Digest, XLVIII (March, 1946), 79-83 at 79, 80.
515 banned items: Koop, 61-63, 70.
515 Madame Defarge: Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities (1859, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931), Book II, chs. 15, 16; Book III, ch. 8, at 169, 170, 173, 177, 299-300. This has been called a purl of a system.
515 cable regulations, flowers: Koop, 64-65.
516 “dead … deceased”: Fletcher Pratt, Secret and Urgent (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1939), 58.
516 codes: “British Lift Ban on Codes for Commercial Cables,” The New York Times (December 29, 1939); “Modify Code Restrictions,” The New York Times (April 6, 1940). Restrictions of Service Imposed by Foreign Governments on International Telegrams and Revised U.S. Censorship Regulations Now in Effect, issue of December 15, 1943 (New York: R.C.A. Communications, Inc.), for code regulations. “Argentina Limits Messages of Axis” (December 4, 1942), “Axis Envoys Protest Curb in Argentina” (December 18, 1942), “Argentina Ends Code Leaks; Moves to Curb Axis Agents” (May 29, 1943), “Holy See First to Suffer by Argentine Code Ban” (June 15, 1943), all The New York Times.
516 want ads, radio precautions: Koop, 62, 179-180.
516 Max Baer: Alfred Toombs, “Washington Communication: Cryptographie Broadcasts,” Radio News, XXV (January, 1941), 15.
517 T.O.D. and Shaw: Harold R. Shaw, untitled 27-page manuscript dealing with his work in censorship (spring, 1964), at 3-7, 14-15. I am deeply indebted to Colonel Shaw for preparing this for me.
518 O.S.R.D. group: Shaw, 24. Who Was Who in America, 1951-1960 for Lamb; Who’s Who in America, 1964-1965 for Chadwell, Brown; AMS for Eaton, Evans, Lothrop, Pierce.
518 hobbies catalogued, swimmer: Koop, 34.
518 economic clues, rare languages: Knight, 80.
519 security assistant: Shaw, 15.
519 New York field office: Melville F. Abrams, interview, May 18,1964. Abrams was chief of its code and cipher section from September 1942 to July 1943. See also “2,000 Here Censor All Foreign Mail,” The New York Times (May 15, 1942).
519 early jargon codes: Meister, Päpstlichen, 5-6, for papal; Bazeries, 10-13, for French.
519 stilted language: Koop, 60; Knight, 81.
519 cigars: Hoy, 102-104.
520 Dickinson: “Woman Accused of Using Letters on Dolls to Convey Military Data” (January 22, 1944), “ ‘Doll Woman’ Enters Guilty Plea in Censor Case, Faces 10 Years” (July 29, 1944), “ ‘Doll Woman’ Sentenced to Prison for 10 Years and Fined $10,000” (August 15, 1944), all The New York Times. Also Shaw, 19-20; Whitehead, 194-195.
521 “Pershing sails … ”: Church, 17. The German ambassador to the United States in World War I, Count Johann von Bernstorff, says in his My Three Years in America (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 154, that he used null ciphers in press cables to pass messages to his Foreign Office through British Censorship.
521 “beating the censor,” servicemen: Koop, 59-60,45-46; Shaw, 11.
521 Nutsi: “A.E.F. Full of Steganographists but Censors Detect Their Codes,” The New York Times (July 24, 1943).
521 family codes: “Navy Warns on ‘Family Codes,’” The New York Times (May 29, 1943).
521 Trevanion: C. C. Bombaugh, Oddities and Curiosities, ed. Martin Gardner (reprinted New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1957).
521 U-boat officers: Shaw, 16-17; Koop, 109.
522 semagraphic drawings: For some good examples, together with some null ciphers, see Melville Davisson Post, “German War Ciphers,” Everybody’s Magazine, XXXVIII (June, 1918), 28-34. For semagrams, see Edmond Locard, Traité de criminalistique, VI (Lyon: Joannès Desvignes, 1937), “Les Correspondances secretes,” 831-931 at “Cryptographie à l’aide des objets,” 901-903.
522 frustrating experience: Abrams.
522 technological steganography: For elementary forms see Allan Fea, Secret Chahibers and Hiding-Places (London: S. H. Bousfield, 1901).
522 Pliny the Elder: Natural History xxvi.62, trans. W. H. S. Jones, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), VIII, 311.
522 Ovid: iii.627ff. For other secret inks in antiquity, see Süss and Thorndike, I, 467.
522 Philo of Byzantium: Ch. Graux, “Notes Paléographiques: 2, L’encre à base métallique dans l’antiquité,” Revue de Philologie, de Littérature, et d’Histoire Anciennes, nouvelle série, IV (1880), 82-85, at 83, quoting Philo’s Veteres Mathematici, 102.
522 Qalqashandi: quoted in Bosworth, 23. Siegfried Türkel, “Eine orientalische sympathetische Tinte im Mittelalter,” Archiv für Kriminologie, LXXVIII (1926), 166, for another Arabic secret ink.
522 secret inks in the Renaissance: Devos, 76; Meister, Päpstlichen, 18-19; Great Britain, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, XX (September, 1585-May, 1586) (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1921), 705-708.
522 book with secret ink: Giovanni Battista Verini,
Secreti: e modi bellissimi nouamente inuestigati, no date or place of publication, cited in Prince d’Essling, Les livres à figures vénitiens (Florence & Paris: Olschiki & Leclerc, 1909), No. 2572, and Max Sander, Le livre à figures italiens (New York: Stechert, 1941), No. 7552, who gives 1530 date.
522 Rautter: Knight, 83; Shaw, 18.
522 sympathetic inks in general: Dr. Edmond Locard, Manuel de Technique Policière (Paris: Payot, 1948), 238-242; Georges Écard, “Les encres invisibles,” Revue Internationale de criminalistique, X (1938), 225-256.
523 Dasch: Eugene Rachlis, They Came to Kill: The Story of Eight Nazi Saboteurs in America (New York: Random House, 1961), 64, 72-73, 162, 203.
523 striping: Dr. Sanborn C. Brown, interview, April 20, 1963.
524 4,600, 400: Knight, 81, 82.
524 Collins: Shaw, 14; Yardley, 60-76.
524 splitting, transfer: Brown.
525 Wurlitzer organ: Shaw, 25-26; Brown.
525 microdots: J. Edgar Hoover, “The Enemy’s Masterpiece of Espionage,” The Reader’s Digest, XLVIII (April, 1946), 1-6; Shaw, 20-21; Brown. Both Herbert C. McKay, “Notes from a Laboratory,” American Photography, XL (November, 1946), 38-49, 50, and A. Cuelenaere, “A Short History of Microphotography (High-Reduction Photography),” Journal of Forensic Sciences, IV (January, 1959), 83-90, with many photographs, provide historical background. Some of the original 1870 microphotographs may be seen in France’s Musée Postal, Paris. See also G. W. W. Stevens, Microphotography: Photography at Extreme Resolution (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957). For concealing messages photographically, see A. Cuelenaere, “Cryptophotography,” International Criminal Police Review, No. 102 (November, 1956), 284-290; Gilbert Renault (pseud. Rémy). Comment devenir agent secret (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1963), 119-121.
526 R.I.D.: George E. Sterling, “The U.S. Hunt for Axis Agent Radios,” Intelligence Articles, n.d., 35-54; George E. Sterling, “The R.I.D. Story,” Spark-Gap Times, No. 16 (August 1, 1963), 13-23; No. 17 (October 1, 1963), 25-39; No. 18 (December 1, 1963), 7-27; No. 19 (February, 1964), 6-7. I am most grateful to Commissioner Sterling for sending me the Spark-Gap Times articles and for other help.
526 “In the routine”: Intelligence Articles, 38.
527 McIntosh and Checkoway: George E. Sterling, letter, November 8, 1963.
528 Latin America: Sterling articles; Whitehead, 215-224. Intelligence Articles, 46-48, for cipher; Whitehead, 223, for “cardinal mistake.”
530 CQ DX v W2 and its cipher: Spark-Gap Times, No. 17, at 36; Whitehead, 168-169; Sayers and Kahn, 24-32. The cipher of the two German agents in Newark, Axel Wheeler-Hill and Felix G. A. Jaahnke, is described in “F.B.I. Tells of Work of Spy Ring Here,” The New York Times (December 1, 1943), 10:6. Though the news story speaks of providing “substitutions for the alphabet,” the description of taking the first nine different letters on the first line of a page of a book and then taking letters of the “left hand marginal line” of the page to form a key accords so closely with the LIR system that it must be the same. The Newark key book was Half Way to Horror.
531 ND98: Whitehead, 196-198.
531 greatest radio deception: Flicke, 172.
531 “The word implies”: Ladislas Farago, Burn After Reading: The Espionage History of World War II (New York: Walker & Company, 1961), 56.
531 Operation North Pole: Unless otherwise specified, all information comes from H. J. Giskes, London Calling North Pole (London: William Kimber, 1953), with an Epilogue by H. M. G. Lauwers. The R.S.H.A. head in the operation, Joseph Schreieder, has written Het Englandspiel (Amsterdam: Van Holkema & Warendorf, n.d.), which I have not been able to read because it is in Dutch; however, its appendix, 305-336, describes various ciphers used—double transposition, Playfair, bifid, null, and a Vigenère type. The Kingdom of the Netherlands investigated the debacle exhaustively and published the hearings and results in three huge volumes: Enquêtecommissie Regeringsbeleid 1940-1945, Verslag Houdende de Uitkomsten van het Onderzoek. Deel 4: De Nederlandse Geheime Deinsten te London de Verbindingen met het Bezette Gebeid (‘s Gravenhage: Staatsdrukkerij-en Uitgeverijbedrijf, 1950). Deel 4B, “Bijlagen,” contains Bijlage 26, a report on the cryptographic-security check problems by H. Koot, J. A. Verkuyl, and A. N. Baron de Vos van Steenwijk, at 88-94, and Bijlage 40, the statement of the British Foreign Office, at 122. Another primary source is Pieter Dourlein, Inside North Pole: A Secret Agent’s Story, trans. F. G. Renier and Anne Cliff (London: William Kimber, 1953).
534 Lauwers security check, “he wanted”: Lauwers in Giskes, 181-185.
536 poor abilities, 5 to 15 per cent, “identity check omitted”; Bijlage 26, §§A7, B17.
536 “inconclusive”: Bijlage 40, §9. The Foreign Office then makes an understatement of a proportion remarkable even for the British: “It was later realised that the decision to continue the operation was mistaken.”
536 Hitler sees messages: T-175:124:2599027-30, marked “Hat dem Führer vorgelegen.”
537 Lauwers attempts: Lauwers in Giskes, 189-194, 196-198.
538 items in German hands: Bijlage 16, at 30.
538 worst Allied defeat: Giskes, 202; Farago, 241.
539 Maquis: Jacques Bergier, Secret Weapons—Secret Agents, trans. Edward Fitzgerald (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1956), 57 for tobacco’, pictures opposite 156 and 112 for plaintext and ciphertext of a message. Gilbert Renault (pseud. Rémy), Mémoires d’un Agent Secret de la France Libre (Paris: Éditions France-Empire, 1960), II, 127-129; Renault, Comment devenir agent secret, 94-101 for double transposition, 103-105 for code and one-time pad.
539 O.S.S.: Abrams, who served in the specialist group in its cryptographic headquarters for more than two years.
539 Tompkins: Peter Tompkins, letters, April 14, 1962, and undated, with enclosures.
539 double transposition solved: Charles Eyraud, interview, May 14, 1962.
540 Vanek: Case 5-1942, Rädhusrätten, Stockholm, obtained by Dr. Käljo Käärik; Per Meurling, Spionage och Sabotage i Sverige (Stockholm: Lindfors Bokforlag, 1952), 125-138. Beurling, interview, September 17, 1963, for his solution; Flicke, 215, for German solution and effects.
541 “Thus, on the night”: Peter Tompkins, A Spy in Rome (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), 131.
541 MARCO POLO: Bergier, 45, 48, 90.
542 Red and Green Plan codewords and impact: Cornelius Ryan, The Longest Day: June 6, 1944 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959), 85; Gordon A. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, United States Army in World War II: The European Theater of Operations (Department of the Army: Office of the Chief of Military History) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1951), 205-206; David Howarth, D Day: The Sixth of June, 1944 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), for “The arrow pierces steel.”
542 Verlaine message: Ryan, 30-34, 84-85, 96-97; Harrison, 275-276; Philippe de Vomécourt, An Army of Amateurs (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, 1961), 229-230; Lieutenant General Bodo Zimmerman, “France, 1944,” in The Fatal Decisions, eds. Seymour Frieden and William Richardson (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1956), 197-245 at 212-213.
544 O.K.H. teletype of June 2: T-78:451:6426880-1.
545 Manhattan District secrecy: Unless otherwise specified, all information from Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II, No High Ground (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), primarily at 59-62, 64, 115-116, 119, 207. Groves quotations and checkerboard, Groves: letter, August 16, 1961. Hiroshima striking code: Thomas F. Farrell, letter, September 8, 1961.
549 Axis wiretaps: Shirer, ix, 338, 585-586; Ciano Diaries, entries for May 10, June 9, June 24, 1940, October 13, 1941, January 25, 1942; Churchill, IV, 602.
549 Choctaws: “The Sun’s Rays: Choctaw Stopped War Wire Tappers,” The (New York) Sun (February 2, 1938), 30:1-2. A. Lincoln Lavine, article in New York American (November 13, 1921), says they were in Company E, 142d Infantry.
550 Indians in World War II: “Comanches Again Called for Army Code Service” (December 13, 1940), “Indians’ ‘Code’
Upsets Foes” (August 31, 1941), “Navajo Code Talk Kept Foes Guessing” (September 19, 1945), all The New York Times; Harris, 218.
550 Navaho language: Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navaho (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946), 186-187, 191, 198, 196.
551 Rogers: DAB; U.S. Patent 251,292.
551 sound: For a clear explanation of speech acoustics, with spectrograms, see George A. Miller, Language and Communication, McGraw-Hill Series in Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951), 26-41.
552 scrambler types: List adapted from W. Koenig, “Final Report on Project C-43; Continuation of Decoding Speech Codes,” Bell Telephone Laboratories for Office of Scientific Research and Development, National Defense Research Committee, Communications Division (Division 13, Section 3), Part I: “Speech Privacy Systems—Interception, Diagnosis, Decoding, Evaluation,” October 12, 1944, at ch. III. Part II is “Appendix Including All Preliminary Reports,” November 30, 1944. This is a superb report on the state of the art at the time—clear and comprehensive. The Library of Congress has published it, together with all other O.S.R.D. scrambler reports, on microfilm Reels 184, 185, and 186 of O.S.R.D. Technical Reports. My list omits vocoders and multiplexing systems because they are not primarily scramblers. U.S. patents on scramblers, mostly in Class 179 Subclass 1.5, offer valuable information. Among the earliest is one (1,123,119) by Lee De Forest that does for radio what Rogers did for telephony—send messages on two different wavelengths.
554 hams listen to Catalina: Lloyd Espenschied, interview, August 27, 1963. Espenschied, one of the A. T. & T. pioneers in radiotelephone and scramblers, worked on the Catalina installation.
554 East Coast, Roberts: Ed G. Raser, letter, June 19, 1964, and enclosed circuit diagrams for Roberts De-Scramblers.
554 A-3: L. Schott, “Final Report on Project C-66: Frequency Time Division Speech Privacy System,” May 29, 1943, Bell Telephone Laboratories for O.S.R.D., at 6-8.
554 Japanese query: PHA, 35:82-83, 22:243-245.
554 Roosevelt, control room: Hal Borland, “Diplomacy in Scrambled Words,” The New York Times Magazine (September 22, 1940), 5, 15; “Roosevelt Protected in Talks to Envoys by Radio ‘Scrambling’ to Foil Spies Abroad,” The New York Times (October 8, 1939), 47:2-3.
