The Drugs That Changed Our Minds

by Lauren Slater

  Ortman, Jennifer M. and Victoria A. Velkoff. ‘An Aging Nation: The Older Population in the United States’. United States Census Bureau, 2014.

  Owens, D. G. Cunningham. A Guide to the Extrapyramidal Side Effects of Antipsychotic Drugs. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

  Park, Denise C., et al. ‘The Impact of Sustained Engagement on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: The Synapse Project’. Psychological Science 25, no. 1 (January 2014): 103–12.

  Parker, Jim. ‘Intelligent People Keep Growing and Changing: The DSN Interview with Dr. Timothy Leary’. Drug Survival News Part 1 (September–October 1981): 12–19.

  Passie, Torsten and Udo Benzenhöfer. ‘The History of MDMA as an Underground Drug in the United States, 1960–1979’. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 48, no. 2 (2016): 67–75.

  Peroutka, S. J., ed. Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA. Boston: Kluwer, 1990.

  Pettus, Ashley. ‘Psychiatry by Prescription’. Harvard Magazine, July–August 2006.

  Pidwirny, Michael. Understanding Physical Geography. Kelowna, BC: Our Planet Earth Publishing, 2015.

  Pollan, Michael. ‘The Trip Treatment’. The New Yorker, 9 February 2015.

  Poole, Steven. Rethink: The Surprising History of New Ideas. New York: Scribner, 2003.

  Porter, Roy. Madness: A Brief History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

  Pratt, Laura A., Ph.D., Debra J. Brody, M.P.H., and Qiuping Gu, Ph.D. ‘Antidepressant Use in Persons Aged 12 and Over: United States, 2005–2008’. National Center for Health Statistics Brief 76, October 2011.

  ‘Profiles in Cardiology, Åke Senning’. Clinical Cardiology 32, no. 8 (2009): 66–67.

  Ramachandraih, Chaitra T., Narayana Subramanyam, Karl Jurgen Bar, Glen Baker and Vikram K. Yeragani. ‘Antidepressants: From MAOIs to SSRIs and More’. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 53, no. 2 (2011): 180–82.

  Rasmussen, Nicolas. On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine. New York: NYU Press, 2009.

  Raz, Mical. The Lobotomy Letters: The Making of American Psychosurgery. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2013.

  Ricaurte, G. A., et al. ‘(+/-)3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“Ecstasy”)-Induced Serotonin Neurotoxicity: Studies in Animals’. Neuropsychobiology 42 (2000): 5–10.

  Ricaurte, G. A., J. Yuan, G. Hatzidimitriou, B. J. Cord and U. D. McCann. ‘Severe Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity in Primates after a Common Recreational Dose Regimen of MDMA (“Ecstasy”)’. Science 297, no. 5590 (27 September 2002).

  Ricaurte, George A. ‘Letters: Retraction’. Science 301, no. 5639 (12 September 2003): 1479.

  Riedlinger, Thomas J., Sacred Mushroom Seeker: Tributes to R. Gordon Wasson. New York: Park Street Press, 1997.

  Roberts, Thomas B. and Robert N. Jesse. ‘Recollections of the Good Friday Experiment: An Interview with Huston Smith’. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 29, no. 2 (1997): 99–103.

  Roccatagliata, Giuseppe. A History of Ancient Psychiatry. New York: Praeger, 1986.

  Romero, Simon. ‘In Brazil, Some Inmates Get Therapy with Hallucinogenic Tea’. New York Times, 28 March 2015.

  Rossi, Andrea, Alessandra Barraco and Pietro Donda. ‘Fluoxetine: A Review on Evidence Based Medicine’. Annals of General Hospital Psychiatry 3, no. 2 (12 February 2004).

  Sacktor, Todd. ‘Erasing Your Memories’. New York Times, Consults blog, 13 April 2009. https://consults.blogs.nytimes.com/­2009/04/13/­memory-erasing.

  Sacktor, Todd Charlton. ‘Memory Maintenance by PKMζ – An Evolutionary Perspective’. Molecular Brain, 18 September 2012.

  Sairanen, M., G. Lucas, P. Ernfors, M. Castrén and E. Castrén. ‘Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Antidepressant Drugs Have Different but Coordinated Effects on Neuronal Turnover, Proliferation, and Survival in the Adult Dentate Gyrus’. Journal of Neuroscience 25, no. 5 (2005): 1089–94.

  Saks, Elyn R. The Center Cannot Hold: My Journey through Madness. New York: Hachette, 2008.

  Schacter, Daniel L. Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. New York: Basic Books, 2008.

  Schacter, Daniel L., et al. ‘Remembering the Past to Imagine the Future: The Prospective Brain’. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8 (2007): 657–61.

  Schattner, Elaine. ‘The Placebo Debate: Is It Unethical to Prescribe Them to Patients?’The Atlantic, 19 December 2011.

  Scommegna, Paola. ‘Dementia Cases Expected to Triple by 2050 as World Population Ages’. Population Reference Bureau, November 2012. www.prb.org/­Publications/­Articles/2012/­global-dementia.aspx.

  Scull, Andrew. Madhouse. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.

  Seminowicz, D.A., H. S. Mayberg, A. R. McIntosh, K. Goldapple, S. Kennedy, Z. Segal and S. Rafi-Tari. ‘Limbic-Frontal Circuitry in Major Depression: A Path Modeling Metanalysis’. Neuroimage 22, no. 1 (May 2004): 409–18.

  Shapiro, Arthur K. and Elaine Shapiro. ‘The Placebo: Is It Much Ado about Nothing?’, The Placebo Effect: An Interdisciplinary Exploration, edited by Anne Harrington, 12–36. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.

  Shorter, Edward. A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: Wiley, 1998.

  Shulgin, Alexander. Pihkal: A Chemical Love Story. Berkeley, CA: Transform Press, 1991.

  Shulgin, Alexander T. ‘The Background and Chemistry of MDMA’. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 18, no. 4 (1986): 291–304.

  ———. ‘History of MDMA’. In Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological, and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA, edited by S. J. Peroutka, 1–20. Boston: Kluwer, 1990.

  Siegel, Ronald K. Intoxication: Life in the Pursuit of Artificial Paradise. New York: Park Street Press, 1989.

  Sirois, F. ‘Perspectives on Epidemic Hysteria’. In Mass Psychogenic Illness: A Social Psychological Analysis, edited by M. J. Colligan, J. W. Pennebaker, and L. R. Murphy, 217–22. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 1982.

  Slater, Lauren. ‘How Do You Cure a Sex Addict?’, New York Times, 19 November 2000.

  ———. ‘Who Holds the Clicker?’Mother Jones, November 2005.

  Smith, Gwenn. ‘A Stimulating Finding in Mild Alzheimer’s’. Hopkins Medicine Magazine, Spring–Summer 2012.

  Smith, J. Huston. The Huston Smith Reader. Berkeley: University of California Press, 26 March 2012.

  Sobo, Simon. ‘Psychotherapy Perspectives in Medication Management’. Psychiatric Times, 1 April 1999.

  Solomon, Andrew. The Noonday Demon. New York: Scribner, 2001.

  Solomon, Lewis D. The Quest for Human Longevity. Livingston, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2006.

  Spiegel, Alix. ‘The Dictionary of Disorder’. The New Yorker, 3 January 2005.

  Stahl, Stephen. Prescriber’s Guide: Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017.

  Starks, Sarah Linsley and Joel T. Braslow. ‘The Making of Contemporary American Psychiatry, Part 1: Patients, Treatments, and Therapeutic Rationales Before and After World War II’. History of Psychology 8, no. 2 (May 2005): 176–93.

  Steeds, H., R. L. Carhart-Harris and J. M. Stone. ‘Drug Models of Schizophrenia’. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology 5, no. 1 (2015): 43–58.

  Steinberg, Holger and Hubertus Himmerich. ‘Roland Kuhn—100th Birthday of an Innovator of Clinical Psychopharmacology’. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 45, no. 1 (2012): 48–50.

  Stolaroff, Myron J. The Secret Chief Revealed. Santa Cruz, CA: MAPS, 2005.

  Stossel, Scott. My Age of Anxiety: Fear, Hope, Dread, and the Search for Peace of Mind. New York: Knopf, 2013.

  Stromberg, Joseph. ‘What Is the Nocebo Effect? For Some Patients, the Mere Suggestion of Side Effects Is Enough to Bring on Negative Symptoms’. Smithsonian, 23 July 2012. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/­science-nature-what-is-the-nocebo-effect-5451823.

  Sugawara, N., et al. ‘Lithium in Tap Water and Suicide Mortality in Japan’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 10, no. 11 (2013):
6044–48.

  Swazey, Judith. Chlorpromazine in Psychiatry: A Study of Therapeutic Innovation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974.

  Sweeney, Michael S. Brain, the Complete Mind. Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2009.

  Talbot, Margaret. ‘The Placebo Prescription’. New York Times Magazine, 3 January 2000. www.nytimes.com/­2000/01/­09/magazine/­the-placebo-prescription.html.

  Tan, Siang Yong and Angela Yip. ‘António Egas Moniz (1874–1955): Lobotomy Pioneer and Nobel Laureate’. Singapore Medical Journal 55, no. 4 (April 2014): 175–76.

  Tansey, E. M. and D. A. Christie, eds. ‘Drugs in Psychiatric Practice’. Wellcome Witnesses to Twentieth Century Medicine 2 (September 1998).

  Taylor, Steven J. ‘Caught in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of the Principle of the Least Restrictive Environment’. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 29, no. 4 (2004): 218–30.

  Teicher, M., M.D., Ph.D., C. Glod, R.N., M.S.C.S., and J. Cole, M.D. ‘Emergence of Intense Suicidal Preoccupation during Fluoxetine Treatment’. American Journal of Psychiatry 147, no. 2 (February 1990): 207–10.

  Thomas, Gerald, et al. ‘Ayahuasca-Assisted Therapy for Addiction: Results from a Preliminary Observational Study in Canada’. Current Drug Abuse Reviews 6, no. 1 (2013): 30–42.

  Toufexis, Anastasia. ‘The Personality Pill’. Time, 24 June 2001.

  Travis, Jeremy. ‘Rise in Hallucinogen Use’. NIJ Research in Brief, October 1997. www.abtassociates.com/­reports/­hallucinogen.pdf.

  Trivers, Robert. The Folly of Fools: The Logic of Deceit and Self-Deception in Human Life. New York: Basic Books, 2011.

  ‘U.S. Will Ban “Ecstasy”, a Hallucinogenic Drug’. New York Times, 1 June 1985.

  Valenstein, Elliot. Blaming the Brain: The Truth about Drugs and Mental Health. New York: Free Press, 2002.

  ———. Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1973.

  ———. Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness. New York: Basic Books, 1986.

  ———. The Psychosurgery Debate: Scientific, Legal, and Ethical Perspectives. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1980.

  ———. The War of the Soups and the Sparks: The Discovery of Neurotransmitters and the Dispute over How Nerves Communicate. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

  Viegas, Jennifer. ‘ “Dancing Plague” and Other Odd Afflictions Explained’. Discovery News, 1 August 2008.

  Volk, Lenora J., Julia L. Bachman, Richard Johnson, Yilin Yu and Richard L. Huganir. ‘PKM-ζ Is Not Required for Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity, Learning and Memory’. Nature 493 (2013): 420–23.

  Wapner, Jessica. ‘He Counts Your Words (Even Those Pronouns)’. New York Times, 13 October 2008.

  Wasson, R. Gordon. ‘Seeking the Magic Mushroom’. Life, 10 June 1957.

  Wasson, Valentina Pavlova and R. Gordon Wasson. Mushrooms, Russia, and History. Vol. 1. New York: Pantheon, 1957.

  Watkins, John. Hearing Voices: A Common Human Experience. Melbourne: Michelle Anderson Publishing, 2008.

  Whitaker, Robert. Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America. New York: Crown, 2010.

  ———. Mad in America. New York: Basic Books, 2010.

  Wiesel, Elie. ‘Never Forget: Holocaust Survivor, Nobel Peace Prize Winner Warns Against Drugs That Erase Memory’. New York Daily News, 10 April 2009.

  Wrobel, Sylvia. ‘Flipping the Switch’. Emory Medicine, Spring 2015.

  Yeragani, Vikram K. et al. ‘Arvid Carlsson, and the Story of Dopamine’. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 52, no. 1 (2010): 87–88.

  Young, M. B., R. Andero, K. J. Ressler and L. L. Howell. ‘3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Facilitates Fear Extinction Learning’. Translational Psychiatry 5, e634 (2015): 138.

  ‘Zimelidine’. PubChem Compound Database. CID=5365247, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/­compound/­5365247.

  Index

  A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.

  Abbott Laboratories 111

  Abraham, Hilda 133

  acepromazine 55

  acetylcholine 17, 48, 50

  addictions 12, 154, 180–1, 264, 295, 297, 316, 342

  adrenaline 229, 291

  ageing population 289–90

  Alzheimer, Alois 302

  Alzheimer’s disease 19, 218, 290, 302, 303

  amitriptyline 161

  ammonia 16

  AMPA receptors 295

  amphetamines 52

  amygdala 112, 195, 278, 292, 308

  amyloid plaques 302

  anaesthetic potentiators 23, 24, 27, 34, 38, 126

  Andrada e Silva, José Bonifácio de 61

  animal studies 25–6, 51, 72–3, 127, 142, 144–5, 177, 193, 200, 279, 281, 282, 283, 294, 295, 296–7, 297

  anti-tubercular drugs 140–1, 143, 162, 310

  antibiotics 1, 67, 68, 162

  anticholinergic drugs 26, 48

  antidepressants 54, 115–55, 161

  author’s experience of 2, 3, 122–4, 133, 152–5

  early antipathy to 132–3

  efficacy, limits of 311, 317, 319

  gendered use of 181

  increase in use of 2, 163, 227

  neurotrophic effect 195

  side effects 2, 3, 146–51, 159, 161

  and suicide risk 311, 317

  tricyclics 124, 125, 127, 140, 145, 146, 150, 151, 160, 197, 200–1, 330, 334

  vicious circle 192

  see also specific index entries

  antihistamines 18, 21, 22–3, 24, 25, 125, 126

  antipsychotics 6, 18, 27, 39–40, 134, 142, 334

  atypical antipsychotics 54

  first see chlorpromazine

  newest 53–4, 55

  prevalence of 54

  side effects 5, 55

  see also specific index entries

  anxiety 157, 158, 159, 197, 306

  generalised anxiety disorder 75

  performance anxiety 291

  social anxiety 5, 173, 274

  aphasia 3

  Area 25 (brain) 315–16

  aripiprazole 3, 53, 54

  Arle, Jeff 310

  aromatics and tonics 16–17

  artificial hibernation 22, 24, 34–5

  associative learning 26

  Astra 158

  asylum, abandoned 9–12, 58–9

  Aulde, John 66

  autism 5, 11, 274–5, 335, 342

  ayahuasca 254, 335, 336, 342

  Ayd, Frank 47

  Aztecs 241

  Baastrup, Poul Christian 89, 96, 101, 103, 105

  barbiturates 17, 19, 20, 23, 85, 87, 135

  Bateson, Gregory 49

  battlefield medicine 22–3, 27–8

  Beck, Aaron T. 160

  Beck, Jerome 280–1

  Belic, Roko 167

  belladonna 16

  Benabid, Alim-Louis 310

  Benadryl 21

  benoxaprofen 187–8

  Bentsen, Lloyd 281

  benzodiazepines 197

  beta blockers 291–2

  Bini, Lucio 14

  Binswanger, Ludwig 135

  bipolar disorder 11, 20, 76, 87, 117

  anticonvulsant therapy 111–12

  lithium therapy 88–9, 100, 109

  see also depression; mania

  Blackwell, Barry 82, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 149, 150

  Bodoni, Pietro 19

  Böhringer, Robert 139

  Bolo, Ann 168–70, 172, 173–4, 176, 177, 201

  borderline personality disorder 335

  Bouttier, Daniel 34

 
; Bowman, Robert 50

  brain

  chemical imbalance theory of 18, 145, 172, 190

  post-mortem studies 205–6

  see also psychosurgery

  Brain Bank (Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center) 205–6

  breakdowns 79

  Brill, Henry 40, 43

  Broadhurst, Alan 124, 125–7, 128–9, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136

  Broca, Pierre Paul 307

  Brodie, Bernard 50–1, 142, 144

  Brunet, Alain 291–2

  Buckman, Robert 211

  Burg, Phillipe 35–6

  Burke, William 311

  Cade, John 69–70, 71–3, 74, 79–83, 84–5, 86, 87, 88, 109, 110

  caffeine 14

  camphor 13

  carbamazepine 112

  Carlat, Daniel 170, 329

  Carlsson, Arvid 52, 158

  cataplexy 198

  catatonia 14, 36, 53, 275

  catecholamine hypothesis 148

  Charpentier, Paul 24, 25, 26, 42, 126, 134

  cheese 146, 148, 149, 150

  chemical mysticism 239, 242–3, 244, 245, 247–8, 249, 250–1, 252–3, 257, 258, 262–3, 266

  Chertok, Léon 28

  chlorpromazine 12, 18–60, 83, 85, 125, 134, 161, 197, 341

  anaesthetic potentiator 34, 38, 126

  anti-emetic properties 38, 39, 40, 42

  clinical testing 27–9

  development of 18–19, 24–6, 126, 134

  falls out of use 54–5

  psychiatric use 34–6, 128, 134

  resistance from practitioners 42, 44–5

  side effects 47–8, 54, 154

  in the United States 39–46, 48

  use in state asylum systems 42–6

  veterinary use of 55

  workings of, ignorance about 49, 51, 70–1

  worldwide use of 45

  chlorpromazine hydrochloride 18

  Chrysippus of Cnidus 207

  cingulotomies 298, 306, 312

  citalopram 171

  classical conditioning 26

  clonazepam 3

  clozapine 341

  coal tars 18

  cocaine 137

  cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) 6, 160, 194, 224

  Cole, Jonathan 185

  Columbine High School shootings 185

  community mental health centres 12, 46, 48, 164

  conium extracts 16

  convulsive therapies

  electroconvulsive therapy 11, 13, 14–15, 20, 29, 33, 90–1, 320