Banned
Page 32
84. Ibid.
85. See Bruce N. Ames, Margie Profet, and Lois Swirsky Gold, “Nature’s Chemicals and Synthetic Chemicals: Comparative Toxicology,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87 (October 1990): 7782–7786.
86. Arnold Lehman, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1117.
87. Ibid., 1145.
88. Kenneth DuBois, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1246.
89. Ibid.
90. Ibid., 1247.
91. John P. Frawley, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1317.
92. Julius E. Johnson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1409.
93. Ibid., 1412.
94. Ibid., 1413.
95. Ibid.
96. Ernest G. Jaworski, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1429.
97. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1342.
98. See Daniel, Toxic Drift, Langston, Toxic Bodies, Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), and Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010). For an ethical perspective, see Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Taking Action, Saving Lives: Our Duties to Protect Environmental and Public Health (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 2007.
99. Daniel, Toxic Drift, 67–68.
100. Ibid., 83.
Chapter 7. Pesticides and Toxicology after the DDT Ban
1. Dunlap, DDT.
2. This section is drawn from Dunlap, DDT, 129–196.
3. J. Brooks Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics: The Nixon Administration’s Pesticide Policy,” Agricultural History 71 (4): 452.
4. Ibid., 197–245.
5. Anon., “Low Consumption of Insecticides Aids Resistance,” Medical Tribune (October 5, 1964), 15.
6. Anon., “Pesticide Poisonings Widespread in U.S.,” Santa Ana Register (September 22, 1969), 10.
7. Chicago Daily News Service, “Pesticide Poisoning Expected to Increase,” Springfield Daily News (December 21, 1971), 1.
8. Ibid.
9. William D. Ruckleshaus, “Federal Register,” (Washington, D.C.: 1972), cited in Lewis Regenstein, America the Poisoned: How Deadly Chemicals Are Destroying Our Environment, Our Wildlife, Ourselves and—How We Can Survive! (Washington, D.C.: Acropolis Books, 1982), 107.
10. This section draws on Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics,” and Flip-pen, Nixon and the Environment (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press), 2000. See also Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 89–93, and Mary Jane Large, “Comments: The Federal Pesticide Control Act of 1972: A Compromise Approach,” Ecology Law Quarterly 3 (1973): 277–310.
11. Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics,” 451–52.
12. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 89.
13. Ibid., 90.
14. Ibid., 91.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., 92.
17. Ibid., 93.
18. Ibid., 93–94.
19. Ibid., 87–88.
20. Michael Elliott, “Properties and Applications of Pyrethroids,” E.H.P. 14 (1976): 4.
21. John E. Casida, “Michael Elliott’s Billion Dollar Crystals and Other Discoveries in Insecticidal Chemistry,” Pesticide Management Science 66 (2010): 1163.
22. M. Elliot, A. W. Farnham, N. F. Janes, P. H. Needham, D. A. Pulman, and J. H. Stevenson, “A Photostable Pyrethroid,” Nature 246 (November 16, 1973): 169.
23. Elliott, “Properties and Applications,” 6.
24. Ibid., 9.
25. Ibid., 10
26. Ibid., 11.
27. John E. Casida, “Pyrethrum Flowers and Pyrethroid Insecticides,” E.H.P. 34 (February 1984): 199.
28. Michael Elliott, “Progress in the Design of Insecticides,” Chemistry and Industry (November 17, 1978): 759.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 767.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., 767–768.
33. Leonard P. Gianessi, “U.S. Pesticide Use Trends, 1966–1989” (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1992).
34. Ibid., 12.
35. Ibid., 13.
36. Ibid., 9.
37. “Chlorpyrifos,” Pesticide Information Profile, Extension Toxicology Network. Available from http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryldicrotophos/chlorpyrifos-ext.html. Accessed May 20, 2011.
38. Gianessi, “U.S. Pesticide Use Trends,” 10.
39. J.A.M.A. 260 (7): 963.
40. Theo Colborn, “Pesticides: How Research Has Succeeded and Failed to Translate Science into Policy: Endocrinological Effects on Wildlife,” E.H.P. 103, Supplement 6 (September 1995): 81–85. See also Colborn, Dianne Dumanoski, and John Peterson Myers, Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? A Scientific Detective Story (New York: Dutton, 1996).
41. See Langston, Toxic Bodies.
42. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 94.
43. Joel Bourne, “Buggin Out: Integrated Pest Management Uses Natural Solutions Both Old and New to Help Farmers Kick the Chemical Habit,” Audubon 101 (2) (1999): 73.
44. American Bird Conservancy, Monocrotophos. Available from http://www.abcbirds.org/pesticides/Profiles/monocrotophos.htm (accessed March 2001).
45. American Bird Conservancy, Diazinon. Available from http://www.abcbirds.org/pesticides/Profiles/diazinon.htm (accessed March 2001).
46. Ted Schettler et al., Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999), 126–129.
47. Brenda Eskenazi, Asa Bradman, and Rosemary Castorina, “Exposures of Children to Organophosphate Pesticides and Their Potential Adverse Health Effects,” E.H.P. 107, Supplement 3 (1999): 409.
48. Gardiner Harris and Hari Kumar, “Contaminated Lunches Kill 22 Children in India,” New York Times (July 17, 2013), http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/18/world/asia/children-die-from-tainted-lunches-at-indian-school.html. Accessed July 18, 2013. See also Meera Subramanian, “Bihar School Deaths Highlight India’s Struggle with Pesticides,” New York Times (July 30, 2013), http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/bihar-school-deaths-highlight-indias-struggle-with-pesticides/. Accessed August 20, 2013.
49. Office of Pesticide Programs (USEPA), “Organophosphate Pesticides in Food: A Primer on Reassessment of Residue Limits,” (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency, 1999), 1.
50. Consumers Union, “Consumers Union Praises EPA Phase Out of the Pesticide Diazinon: Hopes New Administration Will Continue Rigorous Examination of Pesticides,” Press Release, December 5, 2000, 1.
51. Virginia Rauh, Srikesh Arunajadai, Megan Horton, Frederica Perera, Lori Hoepner, Dana B. Barr, and Robin Whyatt, “Seven-Year Neurodevelopmental Scores and Prenatal Exposure to Chlorpyrifos, a Common Agricultural Pesticide,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1196–1201. See also Theo Colborn, “A Case for Revisiting the Safety of Pesticides: A Closer Look at Neurodevelopment,” E.H.P. 114 (1) (2006): 10–17.
52. Stephanie M. Engel, James Wetmur, Jia Chen, Chenbo Zhu, Dana Boyd Barr, Richard L. Canfield, and Mary S. Wolff, “Prenatal Exposure to Organophosphates, Paraoxonase 1, and Cognitive Development in Childhood,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1182–1188.
53. Maryse F. Bouchard, Jonathan Chevrier, Kim G. Harley, Katherine Kogut, Michelle Vedar, Norma Calderon, Celina Trujillo, Caroline Johnson, Asa Bradman, Dana Boyd Barr, and Brenda Eskenazi, “Prenatal Exposure to Organophosphate Pesticides and IQ in 7-Year-old Children,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1189–1195.
54. John D. Meeker and Heather M. Stapleton, “House Dust Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Relation to Hormone Levels and Semen Quality Parameters,” E.H.P. 119 (2010): 318–323.
Epilogue
1. Izuru Yamamoto, “Nicotine to Nicitinoids: 1962 to 1997,” in Yamamoto and John Casida, Nicotinoid Insecticides and
the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 2008), 3–27.
2. Motohiro Tomizawa and John E. Casida, “Neonicotinoid Insecticide Toxicology: Mechanisms of Selective Action,” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 45 (2005): 252.
3. Pierre Mineau and Cynthia Palmer, The Impact of the Nation’s Most Widely Used Insecticides on Birds (Washington, D.C.: American Bird Conservancy, 2013), 5–9.
4. Dave Goulson, “An Overview of the Environmental Risks Posed by Neonicotinoid Insecticides,” Journal of Applied Ecology 50 (4) (2013): 1–11.
5. See Mineau and Palmer, Impact of the Nation’s Most Widely Used Insecticides on Birds, and Goulson, “An Overview of Environmental Risks Posed by Neonicitinoid Insecticides.”
6. EPA, “Colony Collapse Disorder: European Bans on Neonicotinoid Pesticides,” http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/intheworks/ccd-european-ban.html. Accessed September 13, 2013.
INDEX
accumulation. See bioaccumulation
acute vs. chronic toxicity: and cancer, 9, 26, 127
and DDT analysis, 47–48, 49, 51–55, 65, 69–70, 100, 127, 129, 132–133
and diethylene glycol, 24
and food residues, 12, 13, 69, 103–104, 178
importance of both, 28, 164
and joint toxicity, 81–82
and new-drug analysis, 33
and organophosphates vs. chlorinated hydrocarbons, 103–104, 115, 140–141, 148–149, 151, 160–161, 164–165, 191, 212
Public Health Service and, 29. See also specific insecticides
advertising, 9–10, 34–35, 170
Agricultural Insecticide and Fungicide
Association, 116, 117–119
agriculture: arsenate use 1919–1929, 10–11
importance of insecticides to, xiii, 1–2, 3–4, 122, 132, 141–142, 163–164, 166–167
industrialized, xiii, 1–2, 3–4
insecticide use 1966–1989, 203
aldicarb, 205, 206, 207, 208
aldrin, 158, 164, 189, 194, 200, 201, 202, 204
alkyl pyrophosphates, 105
alkyl thiophosphates, 105–106
allethrin, 195, 196
AMA. See American Medical Association (AMA)
American Bird Conservancy, 222
American Chamber of Horrors: The Truth about Food and Drugs (Lamb), 10
American Chemical Society, 12, 144, 189–190
American Cyanamid, 102–103, 106–108, 115, 163
American Medical Association (AMA): and Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy, 20–23
on organophosphates, 102–103
on pesticide-cancer link, 124, 206, 209
Ames, Bruce, 179
aminotriazole, 150–151
amphibians, 57, 58, 59, 60
Amter, Steven, 138
Andresen, August, 119
Annand, Percy Nichol, 40, 45–46
aphids, 42, 43, 93–94, 135, 201
aquatic insects, 45, 61–64, 198
arsenates, 10–13. See also lead arsenate
Atomic Energy Commission, 84
Aub, Joseph, 7
Audubon, 210
Bagdon, Robert, 108–109
bedbugs, 42
Beech-Nut Packing Company, 146–148
Before Silent Spring (Whorton), 11
BEPQ. See Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (BEPQ)
BHC (benzene hexachloride), 125, 140, 142, 147
Bidstrup, Lesley, 98
bioaccumulation/accumulation: Carson on, 158–159, 187, 209
of DDT, 46, 53–54, 55, 68–69, 100, 103–104, 134, 137–138, 139, 141
of neonicitinoids, 222
of organophosphates, 97, 187, 217–218
of pyrethroids, 20
biological control, 161–162, 200
biomagnification, 134, 140–141, 165, 187
bioresmethrin, 196–197, 198
birds, ix–x, 56–57, 57–58, 59–60, 64, 198, 210, 222
Bishopp, Fred C., 139–145, 146
Biskind, Morton S., 123–126, 127
Bliss, Chester I., 26–27, 80–81
bobwhite quail, 56–57
Bosso, Christopher, 25, 29, 121–122, 149
Braun, Herbert, 25
Bristol, Lee H., 34–35
Bromfield, Louis, 135–136
bromination technique (brominated spot test), 111–112
bufagin, 87
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (BEPQ, USDA), 40–44, 139–145
Bushland, Raymond C., 41
California Department of Health, 102
California Department of Public Health, 172–173
Calvery, Herbert O., 26, 29, 51–52
Campbell, Walter, 9, 12–13, 25, 33
cancellation of registration for a pesticide, 191–192, 194
cancer: chemotherapy, 83
Delaney Clause and food residues and, 150
occupational, 8–9
and pesticides, 124, 136–139, 206, 209
Cannan, Keith, 75
Cannon, Clarence, 103, 138
Cannon, Paul R., 24–25, 32
carbamates, 109, 196, 197, 198, 200–201, 211
carbaryl (Sevin), 109, 201, 202, 203, 207, 208
carbofuran, 202, 203, 207, 208
Carpenter, Daniel, 33
Carson, Rachel, 157–158, 162–163, 168–171.
See also Silent Spring (Carson)
Carter Memorial Laboratory, 61
Casida, John E., 195
CBS Reports, 162–163
Celluloid Corporation, 14–15
Center for Biological Diversity, x central nervous system effects. See neurotoxicity/central nervous system effects
Chemagro, 94, 105
chemical industry (insecticide industry, pesticide industry): advertising, 9–10, 34–35, 170
“capture” of USDA and FDA, 146, 185
and Delaney Hearings, 121–122
and labeling, 5
on new-pesticide development and testing, 182–184
on no-effect level, 174–178
and registration (at FIFRA hearings), 117–119
response to Silent Spring, xii, 162
support for Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA), 192, 193. See also specific companies
Chemicals in Food Products Hearings. See Delaney Hearings (Chemicals in Food Products Hearings)
chemical warfare agents, 74–76
Chemical Warfare Service (CWS), 73–76, 84
Chemical Week Reports, 184
Chemie Grünenthal, 175
Chen, Graham, 78–83
Chicago Dietetic Association, 103–104
Chicago stockyards, 1
children, 172, 174–176, 211, 212
chlordane, 125, 142, 146, 147, 204–205
chlorinated hydrocarbons: acute poisoning from, 190–191
banning of, xiv, 188–190, 194–195
and cancer, 137–138, 194
Carson on, 157–159, 160–161
food residues and chronic toxicity, 100, 103–104, 133–134
and organophosphate trade-off, 140–141, 185–186, 187
resistance to, 131–132, 148, 160–161
usage 1966–1989, 200–206. See also specific chlorinated hydrocarbons
chloroquine, 77, 78
chlorpyrifos, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 212
cholinesterase inhibition: carbamates and, 109
Carson on, 159
Cook’s testing of organophosphates, 110–113
DuBois’ research on organophosphates, 92–96, 191
Grob’s research on organophosphates, 96–98
malathion and, 107
OMPA and, 106
Wargo on organophosphates and, 211
chromatography, 111–112
chromium dust research, 138–139
chronic toxicity. See acute vs. chronic toxicity
specific insecticides
Cleere, R. L., 122–123
Clement, Roland, 162<
br />
clothianidin, 221, 222
Coburn, Don R., 56–57
cockroaches, German, 42, 94, 197
Coggeshall, Lowell, 78, 79
Colborn, Theo, 209
Colorado Department of Health, 122–123
Comfort, Nathaniel, 78
Consumers’ Research, Inc., 10
Conway, Eric M., 184–185
Cook, J. William, 110–113
Coon, Julius M., 95, 105–106, 107–108
Copeland, Royal S., 13, 36
corn, 202, 203
Cottam, Clarence, 58–59
cotton pests, 42–43, 202, 203
cottontail rabbits, 56
Coulston, Frederick, 155
Council on Scientific Affairs (CSA) of the American Medical Association, 206, 209
Cox, L. G., 146–148
cranberry scare, 150–151
cross-resistance, 198
Daniel, Pete, 146, 184–185
DDT: acute and chronic toxicity studies on laboratory animals, 47–55
acute poisonings and deaths, 47, 124, 127, 132–133
aerosol experiments, 48–50
application rates, 46, 141
banning of, ix, 187–189, 218–220
Beech-Nut Packing Company (Cox) on residues in baby food, 146–148
bioaccumulation, 46, 53–54, 55, 68–69, 100, 103–104, 134, 137–138, 139, 141
Biskind (physician) on clinical experiences with DDT, 123–126
Bromfield (farmer) on use of, 135–136
and cancer, 137–139
central nervous system effects, 48, 53, 65, 67
compared to organophosphates, 99–101
Delaney committee concerns about, 121
dermal absorption studies, 48, 66–67
and disease-carrying and pest insects, 40–41, 42, 44–45, 142
and Dutch elm disease control, 188
FDA Division of Pharmacology analysis, 50–54
Fish and Wildlife Service experiments, 55–60
food and milk residues and chronic toxicity, 54–55, 103–104, 123–125, 126–129, 133–135
and growth rates, 52
human experiments, 65–69
importance of, to agriculture and the food supply, 141–142
increased populations of nontarget insects after use of, 43
ingestion studies, 47–48, 51–52
initial synthesis of, 39
joint government agency press release on, 126
lab vs. field studies, 60–61, 62