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liver pathology and, 48, 51
Müller’s research at Geigy, 39–40
NIH analysis, 47–50
NIH inhalation experiments, 65–66
persistence of, 41, 140–141
PHS (Hayes and Neal) on residues in food, 126–129
PHS Savannah River National Wildlife Refuge DDT larviciding studies, 61–65
resistance to (acquired), 44, 131–133
resistant insects, 42–43
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) research, 44–45
Texas Research Foundation (Dendy) on food contamination and accumulation of, 133–135
USDA Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (BEPQ) analysis, 40–44, 45–46
USDA (Bishopp) on risks of, 139–145
wild animal laboratory experiments, 55–58
wildlife field studies, 58–65
Decker, George C., 132–133
Delaney, James J., 121
Delaney Clause (1958), 150–151
Delaney Hearings (Chemicals in Food Products Hearings), 121–151
Bishopp (USDA Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine) on risks of DDT, 139–145
Bishopp (USDA) on use and toxicity of parathion, 144–145
Biskind’s clinical experiences with DDT, 123–126
Bromfield’s testimony on overuse of insecticides, 135–136
carcinogenic properties of insecticides, 136–139
congressmen’s concerns about DDT, 121
Cox’s (Beech-Nut Packing Company) testimony on residues in baby food, 146–148
Dendy’s testimony on food contamination and accumulation of DDT (Texas Research Foundation), 133–135
economic entomologists testimony on insects developing resistance to DDT, 131–133
Hayes and Neal’s statements on DDT residues in food (PHS), 126–129
joint government agency press release on safety of DDT (April 1, 1949), 126
and lack of coordination between agencies/professions, 134–135
Lehman (FDA) on chlordane toxicity, 146
Lehman (FDA) on risks of parathion, 145–146
overview, 151–152
results of, 149–152
and scientific uncertainty, 121, 129–133, 148–149
state health officials concerns, 122–123
testimony on importance of insecticides to agriculture and the food supply, 122, 132, 141–142
Dendy, John, 133–135
dermal absorption, 48, 52, 66–67, 96, 99, 100
DFP (diisopropyl fluorophosphate), 92, 94
diazinon, 200, 201, 210, 211
dieldrin, 188, 189, 194
diethylene glycol, 19, 23–24, 30–32
digitoxin, 85–89
diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP), 92, 94
disulfoton, 201, 202
Domagk, Gerhardt, 18
dosage-mortality curve, 26–29
Doull, John, 90
on FDA and Chemagro meetings, 105
on Geiling and Society of Toxicology, 156
on Geiling’s leadership, 76
organophosphate research, 95–96
and radioactive bufagin, 87
and screening program for radioactive elements, 89
toxicity data base, 153–154
on Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 155–156
Dow Chemical, 8, 37, 173–174, 175, 182–183, 184
Drinker, Cecil, 7
DuBois, Kenneth: and AMA Committee on Pesticides, 102–103
classification of organic phosphates, 105–106
on food residues and contamination, 103–104
on organophosphate toxicity, 189–191, 209–210
on potentiation, 180–181
research on organophosphates, 92, 93–96, 108–110
and Textbook of Toxicology, 154–155
and University of Chicago toxicology program, 153–154
Dunbar, Paul, 9
Dunlap, Thomas, 188
DuPont’s Haskell Laboratory, 8–9, 37
Dutch elm disease, 188
EDF v. Ruckelshaus, 189
Edsall, David, 7
Elixir Sulfanilamide, 18–26
AMA concerns about, 19–20
analysis, 22–23
deaths from, 3, 20–21, 22
development of, 18–19
diethylene glycol as toxic agent in, 19, 23–24, 30–32
FDA and AMA analysis of, 21–23, 24–29, 31–32
Geiling’s method of analysis, 33–34
and regulation of new drugs, 32–33, 34–37
Elliott, Michael, 195–200
Elvolve, Elias, 15–16
endocrine disruption, 209, 217, 218
endrin, 159
England, 11, 98. See also Great Britain
environmental contamination, 58–65. See also wildlife
Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), 188–189, 194
Environmental Health Perspectives, 212
environmental movement, ix, x–xi
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ix, 189, 192–194, 211, 213, 222
environmental science, xi
environmental toxicology, xiii
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
EPN, 113–114, 202, 205, 207
ethylene glycol, 30
ethyl parathion. See parathion
Fairhall, Lawrence, 7
FDA. See Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA), 191–194
Federal Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA, 1938): Delaney Clause, 150–151
limitations of, 116–117, 119
Miller Amendment, 149
passage of, 36–37
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1947): Congressional hearings and debate, 116–120
deficiencies of, 167–168, 191–194
provisions of, 120–121
Feichtmeir, Edmund F., 177–178
FEPCA (Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act), 191–194
Fermi, Enrico, 84
FFDCA. See Federal Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA, 1938)
FIFRA. See Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1947) fish and fish food, 38, 57–58, 60, 61–64, 198
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 55–60
Fishbein, Morris, 20, 35, 36
Fisher, R. A., 26, 27
Fitzhugh, O. Garth, 26, 54, 105, 156
flame retardants, 212
Flannagan, John W., 119–120
Flemming, Arthur S., 150
fly bioassay, 53–54, 112–113
fonofos, 202, 203
Food and Drug Administration (FDA): and cancellation of aldrin and dieldrin, 194
Cook’s toxicity testing methodologies, 110–113
and cranberry scare, 150–151
DDT studies, 50–54
and Delaney Hearings, 145–146
Division of Pharmacology, 25–26, 29
and Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy, 21–23, 26–29, 31–32
and Federal Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Act, 36–37
and ginger jake paralysis, 16–17
human tolerance levels, 164–165
insecticide toxicity studies, 99–101
and limitations of 1910 insecticide law, 9–10, 12–13
and Miller Amendment, 149
and no-effect levels, 174, 177
requests for industry testing of organophosphate potentiation, 172
and thalidomide, 175–176
Food Quality Protection Act (1996, FQPA), 211
food residues and contamination, 101, 103–104
arsenates and, 10–13
Beech-Nut’s near zero tolerance level in baby foods, 146–148
chlorinated hydrocarbons, 100, 103–104, 133–134
cranberry scare, 150–151
Delaney Clause (1958), 150–151
EPA cumulative risk assessment (2006), 211, 213
Hayes and Neal’s statements o
n DDT safety (PHS), 126–129
parathion, 102–103, 144–146, 159–160
permethrin and, 197
Ford, William T., 31
Franck, James, 84
Frawley, John P., 113–114, 174–175, 176–177, 181, 182
Freeman, Orville L., 166–168
Fuyat, Henry N., 156
FWS (Fish and Wildlife Service), 38, 55–60
gamma isomer, 101
Geigy, 39–40
Geiling, E. M. K.: and analysis of new drugs, 33–34
and antimalarial drugs, 76–83
and formation of University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory, 73, 74–75, 76
and radioactive digitoxin, 85–86
and Society of Toxicology, 156–157
and Textbook of Toxicology, 154–155
and toxicity studies of Elixir Sulfanilamide, 23–24, 30, 32
general use pesticides, 192
Germany: development of sulfanilamide in, 18
occupational medicine in, 6
organophosphate research, 92–93
ginger jake. See Jamaica ginger Goldfain, Ephraim, 15
Granger, Walter K., 118–119
Great Britain, 6, 66–68. See also England Griffin, E. L., 119
Grob, David, 96–98, 102–103, 105
Gross, Harry, 14–15, 17
growth rates, 52
gypsy moth control, 4
Hamilton, Alice, 6–7
Harness, T. R., 84
Hartzell, Albert, 102–103
Harvard Medical School lead study, 7
Haskell Laboratory, 8–9
Hayes, Wayland J., Jr., 68–69, 126–129
Hazleton, Lloyd W., 106–108
Hazleton Laboratories, 106–108
Heal, Ralph, 146
Hedrick, E. M., 125, 133–134
Herber, Lewis, 157
Hercules Powder Company, 174
hexaethyl tetra phosphate (HETP), 92, 94, 99, 100, 104
Higgins, Elmer, 58–59
Hilts, Philip J., 36
Hitchner, L. S., 117–119
Holland, Emily G., 106–108
honeybees, 43, 46, 198
Horan, Walter, 131–132
houseflies, 45, 53–54, 131–132, 196–197
Howard, Leland Ossian, 40
Hub Products Corporation, 14–15
Hueper, Wilhelm C., 8–9, 137–139
Humphrey, Hubert, 166
Hutchinson, K. T., 122
hydrolization, 97, 102, 103, 104, 111, 114
Hygeia, 35
I. G. Farbenindustrie, 18, 77
imidacloprid (IMI), 221, 222
ingestion, 47–48, 51–52. See also food residues inhalation experiments, 65–66
Insecticide Act (1910), 2, 5–6, 25
insecticide industry. See chemical industry
insecticides/pesticides: agriculture’s increasing reliance on, xiii, 1–2, 3–4, 122, 132, 141–142, 163–164, 166–167
amounts and types used, 13, 200–206, 206–209
classes of, xii–xiii, 171–172, 221–222 (see also carbamates
chlorinated hydrocarbons
organophosphates
systemic insecticides)
education of public about, vi, xi, 157–188, 168, 170
hearings (see Delaney Hearings
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1947)
Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations hearings on interagency coordination in environmental hazards)
industry development and testing procedures, 182–184
labeling, 1, 5, 32–33, 117, 120–121, 214
Lehman’s (FDA) comparative studies, 99–101
registration, ix, 117–121, 167–168, 191–194
restricted use and general use categories, 192
risk assessment, xiii–xiv, 122, 163–165, 211, 217–220, 222–223. See also legislation
specific insecticides
Institute of Toxicology, 179–180
Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards (Pesticides) Hearings (Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations) (1963): 165–179
Carson’s recommendations, 168–171
Freeman (Secretary of Agriculture) on insecticide benefits vs. risk
industry testimony on new-pesticide development and testing, 182–184
Jaworski (Monsanto) on toxicity of natural products, 178–179
Johnson (Dow Chemical) on organophosphates, 173–174
Larrick (FDA) on organophosphate potentiation, 172
Lehman on toxicology-pharmacology gap, 179–180
Randolph (University of Michigan Medical School) on sensitization to organophosphates, 172
testimony about no-effect levels, 174–178, 179
testimony on need for interagency coordination, 169
testimony on potentiation, 180–181
Vos (FDA) on determining tolerance levels, 174
West (California Department of Public Health) on acute toxicity of organophosphates, 172–173
See Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations hearings on interagency coordination in environmental hazards (1963)
International Conference on Alternative Insecticides for Vector Control (1970), 195–196
Jacobsen, Leon, 83
Jacobson, Martin, 166
Jamaica ginger and jake leg paralysis (ginger jake, jake leg), 2, 13–18, 161
Jaworski, Ernest J., 178–179, 183–184
Jeffries, Zay, 84
Jeffries Committee, 84
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 96–98
Johnson, Julius E., 173–174, 175, 176–177, 182–183
joint toxicity/potentiation, 80–82, 83, 113–114, 160, 172, 180–181
Journal of the American Medical
Association, 19–20, 69, 128
Jungle, The (Sinclair), 1
Kallet, Arthur, 10, 12, 13, 17
Kay, Gwen, 37
Keefe, Frank B., 119
Kelsey, Frances Oldham, 73, 80, 175–176
Kennedy, John F., 163
Kinkela, David, 41
Kleinfeld, Vincent A., 121
questioning of Bishopp (USDA), 142–145
questioning of Biskind, 126
questioning of Bromfield, 135
questioning of Decker, 132–133
questioning of Hayes and Neal (PHS), 127–129
questioning of Hueper, 137–138
questioning of Lehman (FDA) on parathion, 145–146
Klumpp, Theodore G., 31
Knipling, Edward F., 40–41, 41–42, 139, 143–144, 166, 167
labeling, 1, 5, 32–33, 117, 120–121, 214
lady beetles, 43
Lamb, Ruth deForest, 10
Langston, Nancy, 150, 175, 184–185, 209
Larrick, George, 172, 176
Laug, Edwin P., 25, 26, 27–28, 29, 53–54, 112, 113
LD50 (Lethal Dose 50): and additive effects (potentiation), 113–114
for carbamates, 109
comparative studies of, 106, 197
database, 89
for DDT, 47, 53, 134
development of, 27–29
for neonicitinoids, 221
and no-effect level, 177
for organophosphates, 95, 96, 99, 106, 113–114, 173, 196, 219
for pyrethroids, 196, 197
lead arsenate, 4–5, 9, 11–12, 13, 54
lead industry and lead poisoning, 6–7
legislation: Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy and regulation of new drugs, 32–33, 34–37
Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA), 191–194
Federal Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA, 1938), 36–37, 116–117, 119, 149
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1947), 116–120, 120–121, 167–168, 191–194
Food Quality Protection Act (1996, FQPA), 211
Insecticide Act (1910), 2, 5–6, 25
&nbs
p; National Environmental Protection Act (1970), 189
overview, 214–217
Pure Food and Drug Act (PFDA, 1906), 1–2, 5, 17–18, 31, 33, 35–36
Lehman, Arnold J.: and AMA Committee on Pesticides, 102–103
as chief of FDA Division of Pharmacology, 105
insecticide toxicity studies, 99–101
on parathion, 145–146
and Society of Toxicology, 156
and Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 155
Lehmann, Karl, 6
Lethal Dose 50, see LD50
Libby, W. F., 87
Lightbody, Howard, 25
Lillie, R. D., 48, 51
lindane, 147, 168, 173, 204
liver pathology, 48, 51
Long, Perrin H., 32
Lushbaugh, C. C., 83–84
Lyndol, 14–15
MacDougall, Dan, 105
malaria, 44–45, 76–83, 141
malathion (malathon): amounts used, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208
Carson on, 160
occupational disease attributed to, 173
toxicity, 106, 108–109, 113–114, 197
mammals: Carson on, 158–160
and chlorpyrifos, 203
and DDT, 55, 59, 61, 64–65
and HETP, 94
and OMPA, 95
and organophosphates, 105–109, 112, 173
and parathion, 95
and pyrethroids, 195, 196–197, 199–200
Mancuso, Thomas, 138
Mangun, George, 94–95
Markowitz, Gerald, 184–185
Massengill Company, 19–26, 30–31
McCaulley, D. F., 112–113
McCloskey, W. T., 25
McLean, Franklin D., 74–75
Mellon Institute, 109
methyl parathion, 112, 200, 201, 202–203, 204, 207, 208
Mexican fruit fly, 44
milk contamination, 54–55, 100, 103–104, 112, 125, 129, 142–144
Miller, A. I., 121, 124, 130–131, 134, 139, 143, 145, 149
Miller, Lloyd C., 25
Miller Amendment (1954), 149, 151
monocrotophos, 210, 211
Monsanto Chemical Company, 178–179, 183–184
Morris, Harold P., 25, 26, 136–137
Morris, Herman, 25
Moulton, F. C., 4
Müller, Paul, 39–40
Mulliken, R. S., 84
Murphy, Sheldon, 109–110
muscarine, 97, 159
Myers, C. N., 11–12
naphthalene, 18
Nash, Linda, 211
National Academy of Science (NAS), 194
National Association of Insecticide and Disinfectant Manufacturers, 34, 35
National Cancer Institute (NIH), 136–138
National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), 73–74
National Environmental Protection Act (1970), 189
National Farmers Union, 119
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 47–50, 65–66, 79, 136. See also U.S. Public Health Service