The Forest Unseen: A Year's Watch in Nature
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Wagner, D. L. 2005. Caterpillars of Eastern North America: A Guide to Identification and Natural History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
September 23rd—Vulture
Blount, J. D., D. C. Houston, A. P. Mller, and J. Wright. 2003. “Do individual branches of immune defence correlate? A comparative case study of scavenging and non-scavenging birds.” Oikos 102: 340–50.
DeVault, T. L., O. E. Rhodes, Jr., and J. A. Shivik. 2003. “Scavenging by vertebrates: behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives on an important energy transfer pathway in terrestrial ecosystems.” Oikos 102:225–34.
Kelly, N. E., D. W. Sparks, T. L. DeVault, and O. E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. “Diet of Black and Turkey Vultures in a forested landscape.” Wilson Journal of Ornithology 119: 267–70.
Kirk, D. A., and M. J. Mossman. 1998. “Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura),” The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.339.
Markandya, A., T. Taylor, A. Longo, M. N. Murty, S. Murty, and K. Dhavala. 2008. “Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India.” Ecological Economics 67: 194–204.
Powers, W. The Science of Smell. Iowa State University Extension. www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963a.pdf.
September 26th—Migrants
Evans Ogden, L. J., and B. J. Stutchbury. 1994. “Hooded Warbler (Wilsonia citrina),” The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.110.
Hughes, J. M. 1999. “Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus),” The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.418.
Rimmer, C. C., and K. P. McFarland. 1998. “Tennessee Warbler (Vermivora peregrina),” The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.350.
October 5th—Alarm Waves
Agrawal, A. A. 2000. “Communication between plants: this time it’s real.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 446.
Caro, T. M., L. Lombardo, A. W. Goldizen, and M. Kelly. 1995. “Tail-flagging and other antipredator signals in white-tailed deer: new data and synthesis.” Behavioral Ecology 6: 442–50.
Cotton, S. 2001. “Methyl jasmonate.” www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/jasmine/jasminev.htm.
Farmer, E. E., and C. A. Ryan. 1990. “Interplant communication: airborne methyl jasmonate induces synthesis of proteinase inhibitors in plant leaves.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 87: 7713–16.
FitzGibbon, C. D., and J. H. Fanshawe. 1988. “Stotting in Thomson’s gazelles: an honest signal of condition.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23: 69–74.
Maloof, J. 2006. “Breathe.” Conservation in Practice 7: 5–6.
October 14th—Samara
Green, D. S. 1980. “The terminal velocity and dispersal of spinning samaras.” American Journal of Botany 67: 1218–24.
Horn, H. S., R. Nathan, and S. R. Kaplan. 2001. “Long-distance dispersal of tree seeds by wind.” Ecological Research 16: 877–85.
Lentink, D., W. B. Dickson, J. L. van Leewen, and M. H. Dickinson. 2009. “Leading-edge vortices elevate lift of autorotating plant seeds.” Science 324: 1438–40.
Sipe, T. W., and A. R. Linnerooth. 1995. “Intraspecific variation in samara morphology and flight behavior in Acer saccharinum (Aceraceae).” American Journal of Botany 82: 1412–19.
October 29th—Faces
Darwin, C. 1872. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Reprint, 1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lorenz, K. 1971. Studies in Animal and Human Behaviour. Translated by R. Martin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Randall, J. A. 2001. “Evolution and function of drumming as communication in mammals.” American Zoologist 41: 1143–56.
Todorov, A., C. P. Said, A. D. Engell, and N. N. Oosterhof. 2008. “Understanding evaluation of faces on social dimensions.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12: 455–60.
November 5th—Light
Caine, N. G., D. Osorio, and N. I. Mundy. 2009. “A foraging advantage for dichromatic marmosets (Callithrix geoffroyi) at low light intensity.” Biology Letters 6: 36–38.
Craig, C. L., R. S. Weber, and G. D. Bernard. 1996. “Evolution of predator-prey systems: Spider foraging plasticity in response to the visual ecology of prey.” American Naturalist 147: 205–29.
Endler, J. A. 2006. “Disruptive and cryptic coloration.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 273: 2425–26.
———. 1997. “Light, behavior, and conservation of forest dwelling organisms.” In Behavioral Approaches to Conservation in the Wild, edited by J. R. Clemmons and R. Buchholz, 329–55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
King, R. B., S. Hauff, and J. B. Phillips. 1994. “Physiological color change in the green treefrog: Responses to background brightness and temperature.” Copeia 1994: 422–32.
Merilaita, S., and J. Lind. 2005. “Background-matching and disruptive coloration, and the evolution of cryptic coloration.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 272: 665–70.
Mollon, J. D., J. K. Bowmaker, and G. H. Jacobs. 1984. “Variations of color-vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 222: 373–99.
Morgan, M. J., A. Adam, and J. D. Mollon. 1992. “Dichromats detect colour-camouflaged objects that are not detected by trichromats.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 248: 291–95.
Schaefer, H. M., and N. Stobbe. 2006. “Disruptive coloration provides camouflage independent of background matching.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 273: 2427–32.
Stevens, M., I. C. Cuthill, A. M. M. Windsor, and H. J. Walker. 2006. “Disruptive contrast in animal camouflage.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences 273: 2433–38.
November 15th—Sharp-shinned Hawk
Bildstein, K. L., and K. Meyer. 2000. “Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus),” The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.482.
Hughes, N. M., H. S. Neufeld, and K. O. Burkey. 2005. “Functional role of anthocyanins in high-light winter leaves of the evergreen herb Galax urceolata.” New Phytologist 168: 575–87.
Lin, E. 2005. Production and Processing of Small Seeds for Birds. Agricultural and Food Engineering Technical Report 1. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Marden, J. H. 1987. “Maximum lift production during takeoff in flying animals.” Journal of Experimental Biology 130: 235–38.
Zhang, J., G. Harbottle, C. Wang, and Z. Kong. 1999. “Oldest playable musical instruments found at Jiahu early Neolithic site in China.” Nature 401: 366–68.
November 21st—Twigs
Canadell, J. G., C. Le Quere, M. R. Raupach, C. B. Field, E. T. Buitenhuis, P. Ciais, T. J. Conway, N. P. Gillett, R. A. Houghton, and G. Marland. 2007. “Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104: 18866–70.
Dixon R. K., A. M. Solomon, S. Brown, R. A. Houghton, M. C. Trexier, and J. Wisniewski. 1994. “Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems.” Science 263: 185–90.
Hopkins, W. G. 1999. Introduction to Plant Physiology. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Howard, J. L. 2004. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html.
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Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller (eds.). 2007. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Woodbury, P. B., J. E. Smith, and L. S. Heath 2007. “Carbon sequestration in the U.S. forest sector from 1990 to 2010.” Forest Ecology and Management 241: 14–27.
December 3rd—Litter
Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, Jr. 1996. Fundamentals of Soil Ecology. San Diego: Academic Press.
Crawford, J. W., J. A. Harris, K. Ritz, and I. M. Young. 2005. “Towards an evolutionary ecology of life in soil.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20: 81–87.
Horton, T. R., and T. D. Bruns. 2001. “The molecular revolution in ectomycorrhizal ecology: peeking into the black-box.” Molecular Ecology 10: 1855–71.
Wolfe, D. W. 2001. Tales from the Underground: A Natural History of Subterranean Life. Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing.
December 6th—Underground Bestiary
Budd, G. E., and M. J. Telford. 2009. “The origin and evolution of arthropods.” Nature 457: 812–17.
Hopkin, S. P. 1997. Biology of the Springtails (Insecta: Collembola). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Ruppert, E. E., R. S. Fox, and R. D. Barnes. 2004. Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.
December 26th—Treetops
Weiss, R. 2003. “Administration opens Alaska’s Tongass forest to logging.” The Washington Post, December 24, page A16.
December 31st—Watching
Bender, D. J., E. M. Bayne, and R. M. Brigham. 1996. “Lunar condition influences coyote (Canis latrans) howling.” American Midland Naturalist 136: 413–17.
Gese, E. M., and R. L. Ruff. 1998. “Howling by coyotes (Canis latrans): variation among social classes, seasons, and pack sizes.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 76: 1037–43.
Epilogue
Davis, M. B., ed. 1996. Eastern Old-Growth Forest: Prospects for Rediscovery and Recovery. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac, and Sketches Here and There. New York: Oxford University Press.
Linnaeus, C. [1707–1788], quoted as epigram in Nicholas Culpeper, The English Physician, edited by E. Sibly. Reprint, 1800. London: Satcherd.
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Index
actinomycetes, 223
Agkistrodon contortrix, 137
Ailanthus altissima, 220
alarm waves, 184–87
Alexander the Great, 6
algae, and lichens, 2, 3–4
aluminum, 225
amino acids, 105
anemone, rue, 54, 60, 72
antelopes, 32
ants:
and caterpillars, 170–72
fire, 92
as nectar robbers, 70–71
and seed dispersal, 90–91, 92
aphids, 104, 105
Archaefructus, 60
arthropods, 233
artiodactyl, 25
Ashe, Thomas, 31
ash trees, 191
astrology, 48–49
babesiosis, 121
background noise, 185
bacteria:
and leaf litter, 223
and lichens, 2, 3–4
balsam fir, 108
bears, giant herbivorous, 32
bees, 57–60, 86
Bergmann’s rule, 13, 19, 20
bird feeders, 212
birds:
balance of weight and power in, 209–10
and calcium, 114–16
disease-carrying, 111–13, 116
feeding behavior, 18
flight songs of, 82
flocking behavior, 18
migration of, 19–20, 169, 173, 180–83
plumage of, 202
and predators, 154
roosting, 19
songs of, 82–84
at sundown, 240
at sunrise, 81–85
wing design of, 210–11
winter survival of, 15–16, 17, 18–20, 22
see also specific birds
bison, 32
Blake, William, “Auguries of Innocence,” xii
bloodroot, 102
blue jays, 82
bobcats, 34
Böhme, Jakob, 47–48
bombyliid “bee” flies, 60, 61
bud scars, 215, 220, 221
buttercups, 72
butterflies, 171
calcium, 114–16
camouflage, 203–4
canopy openings, 219
carbon, 220–21
cardinals, 83
caterpillars, 103, 108, 169–73
ant attacks on, 170–72
of blue butterflies, 171
tussock moth, 170, 172, 173
wasp larvae in, 143–45
cellulose, 25, 28
centipedes, 56
cheetahs, 34
chemicals, defensive, 186–87
chickadees:
Carolina, 12–20, 21–22, 81
eyesight of, 16–17
fat stores of, 18
flocking behavior, 18
habitat needed to sustain, 19
roosts of, 19
shivering in the cold, 14, 15, 20
winter survival of, 15–16, 17, 18–20
chickweed, 68–70, 72
chipmunks, 184, 186, 187
chlorophyll, 23
cicadas, 162, 163
cicely, 200–201, 206
coarse woody debris (fallen trees), 45, 100, 216–18
collembolans, 232–33
competition, 106
consciousness, 145
copperheads, 137
cowbirds, 83
coyotes, 150–55, 239, 240–41
crickets, 5–6, 161, 194, 195
crows, 83
cuckoos, 162, 181–82
Culex mosquito, 111
Cumberland Plateau, xiii, 95
cyanobacteria, 4
Darwin, Charles, 32–33, 144–45
The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, 196–97
On the Origin of Species, 193
deer, 25–30
alarms of, 184–85, 186
extinct species of, 32
modern phobia toward, 31–32
overbrowsing by, 31
population growth of, 30, 153–55
seeds transported by, 90–92
tick-borne diseases in, 30
Dianthus, 72
dichromats, 204–5
digitalis, 165
Doctrine of Signatures, 48, 49
domestication, 197–98
earthquake, 93–96
earthstars, 156, 159
earthworms, 234
efts, 147–50
eggs, 134
Ehrlichiosis, 121
elaiosome, 88, 91, 92
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 217
enchytraeids, 234
English peppered moth, 203
environmental activism, 244
ethyl mercaptan, 176
evergreens, 23
evolution:
and competition, 106
and Darwin, 32–33, 144–45, 193
fossil evidence, 32–34, 60–61
natural selection, 91, 92, 98, 129–30, 137, 167
and variation, 193
expectation, 245
extinctions, 32–34, 66
faces, 196–97
ferns, 122–26
Christmas, 23–24, 122–24, 126
fiddleheads, 123
lily-pad, 124, 12
5–26
rattlesnake, 124–26
spores of, 123–24, 125
fir, balsam, 108
fireflies, 137–40
flies:
bombyliid (“bee flies”), 60, 61
tachinid, 163
flowers:
in April, 68–72
fertilization of, 57–58, 60–62, 68–72
seeds of, 88–92
spring ephemerals, 54–56, 57–62
of trees, 87
footprints, 25–34
forest:
benchmark studies of, 31
ecological studies of, 31
temperate, 32
fossil flowers, 60–61
fossils, 32–34
foxgloves, 165
fungi, 131–36
earthstars, 156, 159
feeding, 132
and hyphae, 226–27
and lichens, 2–3, 4
and mycorrhizae, 227–28
and plants, 226–29
reproduction, 133–36
and roots, 226–29
sac, 131–33, 134
spores of, 131, 133–34, 224
underground network of, 136
furca, 232
ginseng, 166–67
gnats, 233
goldfinches, 82
golf balls, 156–59
Gordian knot, 6, 7
Gordian worms, 6
Gray, Asa, 144
Hanton, Baron de la, 31
Harriot, Thomas, 31
hawks, sharp-shinned, 208–12
heat loss, 12–15, 19
hemipteran bugs, 224
Hepatica, 46–50, 54, 72, 127
in autumn, 207
fruits of, 87–92
reproduction of, 60, 68, 70, 129
seed dispersal of, 91
herbivory:
insects, 102–8
mammalian, reduction in, 33
hermaphroditism, 70, 127–30
hickory trees, 73–77
and canopy openings, 219
fallen, 100, 216, 218
flowers of, 87
seeds of, 86
hoatzin, 26
holly trees, 33
honey locust trees, 33
hornworts, 36
horsehair worm, 5–6
hurricanes, 218
hydrogen ions, 225
hyphae, 226–27
hypostome, 119
ice ages, 32
insects:
plant eaters, 102–8
and pollination, 57–58, 60–62, 68–72, 88–92
populations of, 106
invasive species, 220
jasmonate, 187