Lincoln's Code
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as secretary of state, 138, 143, 146–51, 153, 155–57, 160–69, 180–81, 211, 214, 216, 291, 317, 367
as U.S. senator, 147
sharp wars, 184, 235–36, 279, 325, 349–52, 357–58
Shaw, Robert Gould, 223
Shelby, J. O., 190
Sheridan, Philip, 337
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 334
Atlanta assault of, 250–52
background and education of, 275–76, 278
humanities of the case, 279
March to the Sea of, 6, 252, 274, 276–83, 302, 357
slavery and, 275
Union Army command of, 3, 191, 250–53, 274–84, 286, 293
U.S. Army command of, 329, 337, 362
Sibley, Henry Hastings, 330–33
Simsbury copper mines, 39
Sioux Indians, 89, 328, 330, 331, 332
Slaveholding Republic, The: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (Fehrenbacher and McAfee), 73n
slavery, 29–32
abolition of, 2, 4, 78, 304–5, 367
evils of, 49, 75, 317
in wartime, 8, 29–32, 72–77, 199, 203–4
see also Emancipation Proclamation
slaves, 29–32, 70, 196–206, 367
British wartime emancipation of, 29–32, 34, 38, 49, 51, 72–77, 199, 206
compensation for seizure of, 72, 75–77
as “domestic enemies,” 31
executions of, 74, 201
feared insurrections of, 15, 30, 73–75, 197, 199–203, 206–7, 217, 249
freeing of, 2, 4, 78, 169, 198, 199, 211–13
fugitive, 73–74, 76, 150, 202, 206, 227, 276, 362
as private property, 70–77, 139, 199, 205, 226–27
recapture of, 32, 49, 276
relations of masters and, 29, 30, 201
trade in, 30, 31, 73, 164, 201, 266
Slidell, John, 317
smallpox, 92
1775–82 epidemic of, 21, 32, 80
Smith, Adam, 28
Smith, Gerrit, 210
Smith, Jacob, 355, 358
Smith, Kirby, 256
Smith, Margaret Bayard, 73
Smith, Robert, 87
Smith, William, 161
Smyth, Alexander, 102
soldiers:
courts-martial of, 22, 361
moral instruction of, 20, 22, 26
Washington’s discipline of, 19–20
see also prisoners of war
Somerset’s Case, 242
Sonoma, USS, 154
Sons of Liberty, 309
Sotuqnangu, 88–89
South Africa, 354
South America, 47, 162, 204
Southard, Samuel, 87
South Carolina, 21, 31, 36, 38–40, 42, 72, 76, 115, 180, 207, 220–23, 226–27, 274, 277–78, 283–84
ports of, 145, 147, 157, 159
Sea Islands of, 164, 222
secession of, 136
South Carolina College, 176–77, 179
South Carolina militia, 38
Spain, 17, 47, 49, 58, 77, 353–54
Dutch revolt against, 194
French occupation of, 120, 122, 127, 242, 286
South American colonies of, 88
U.S. relations with, 104–5, 134, 348, 353–54, 356
Spangler, Edman, 291, 294
Spanish-American War of 1898, 348, 353–54, 356
Spanish Inquisition, 291
Spanish Succession War, 45
Speed, James, 290, 293, 307–8, 311–12, 315, 317, 318, 321, 334
Speed, Joshua, 207
spies, 73, 87, 126–27, 386–88
execution of, 24, 25–26
Spinoza, Baruch, 254
Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu), 28
Spooner, Lysander, 200
Springbok, 154
Springfield, Mo., 189, 217
Springfield rifle, 4
Stanberry, Henry, 310, 315
Stanly, Edward, 228
Stanton, Edwin, 180, 211, 317
as secretary of war, 2, 190–91, 193, 196, 209, 217, 222–23, 228–30, 237, 240, 244–45, 248, 254, 255, 258–59, 264, 266, 287, 299, 316, 318, 322, 323
“Star-Spangled Banner, The,” 69
State Department, U.S., 138, 199, 354, 370
Stephens, Alexander, 287, 317
Steuben, Baron Friedrich von, 25, 81
Stevens, Thaddeus, 146–47, 305, 307, 313
Stevens, Thomas H., 154
Stevenson, Andrew, 115
Stimson, Henry, 346–47
Stoddard, Solomon, 92
Stony Point, Battle of, 23–24, 25–26
Storrs, Richard Salter, 341
Story, Joseph, 55, 71, 83, 109–10, 176, 177
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 206, 339
Stringham, S. H., 147
Strong, George Templeton, 339
Strong, Josiah, 353
Stuart, Charles, 42
submarine torpedoes, 237
Sullivan, Algernon, 161–62
Sullivan, John, 36, 107
Sumner, Charles, 109–11, 138, 148, 151, 168, 176, 196, 288, 323
antislavery policy of, 205–6, 210
Lieber and, 178–79, 187–88, 205, 227–29, 289, 317, 318, 340
Reconstruction policy of, 306–7
on war as organized murder, 109, 110–11, 132, 178, 187–88
Supreme Court, U.S., 83, 150–52, 154–55, 273, 309, 313–15, 324, 370
battles over military commissions in, 5
early decisions of, 81–82
fugitive slave cases in, 150
Marshall as chief justice of, 54–59, 70–71, 81, 96, 100, 301, 366, 370
piracy cases in, 161–62
post–9/11 terrorism cases in, 5
prize cases in, 56, 81–82, 100, 150–51, 152, 155, 306–7, 323
tenth seat added to, 150
Surprise, HMS, 69
Surratt, John, 292
Surratt, Mary, 291–92, 294, 318
Sweden, U.S. treaty with, 47
Swedenborg, Emanuel, 254
Switzerland, 339, 341
Symonds, Craig, 167
Taft, William Howard, 356
Talbot, Silas, 56–57, 59
Talbot vs. Seeman, 56–59
Tallapoosa River, 96
Tallmadge, James, 103, 106
Tallushatchee, Ala., 95
Tamaulipas, 120
Tampa, Fla., 253
Tampico, 124
Tanacharison (Iroquois), 14
Taney, Roger, 150, 154, 199
Tarleton, Banastre, 38, 42
Tarrytown, N.Y., 25
Taylor, Zachary:
in Mexican War, 117–19, 121–23, 125, 131
presidency of, 119
Tecumseh, 101
telegraph, invention of, 52
Tennessee, 170, 189
Tennessee militia, 78, 94–97
Tennessee River, 186
Tenure of Office Act, 316, 322, 334
Texas, 201, 254, 303
ports of, 145
secession of, 137
Texas Rangers, 121, 125
Thayer, Sylvanus, 84, 85, 86
Thirty Years’ War, 18–19, 280, 348
Thomas, George H., 297
Thornton, Seth, 118
Thousand Days, A: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Schlesinger), 52n
Ticonderoga, Battle of, 41
Tilghman, Edward, 81
Times (London), 114, 160, 165, 340
tobacco, 147
Toronto, 67, 111
Toronto Globe, 295
Torrejón, Anastasio, 117
torture, 39, 281
prohibition of, 2, 4, 5, 8, 184, 186, 333, 358–61
of U.S. ship captains, 55
U.S. use of, 7, 355–56, 359–61, 360, 363, 364–65
water cure, 355–56, 359–61, 360, 371
Toussaint L’Ouverture, François-Dominique, 200
Tower of London, 21, 72
Townsend, James, 202
Transcontinental Treaty of 1819, 105
treason, 21, 42, 69, 114, 126–27, 142, 386–88
amnesty for, 288
death penalty for, 24–25, 24, 125
Treatise on the Law of War, A (Bynkershoek), 82
Treaty of Fort Jackson, 96, 104
Treaty of Ghent, 75, 77, 89
Trenholm, George, 287
Trent, 165–69
Trent affair, 317
Trenton, Battle of, 20
Tropic Wind, 147
Trumbull, Benjamin, 41
Trumbull, Lyman, 266, 304
Turchin, John Basil, 191, 274
Turkey, 133
Turner, Levi C., 264–65
Turner, Nat, 200
Twain, Mark, 164
Tyler, John, 116–17, 178
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 206, 339
Underwood, John Curtiss, 321
Union, 8, 137
blockade of southern ports by, 143–69, 275, 306, 366, 368, 370
Confederate agents in, 309
political leadership in, 137–38
preservation of, 4, 220, 238, 263
vengeful streak in, 289
war effort of, 1, 3, 147, 180, 208–11, 289
Union Army, 143, 170–73, 193
aggressive policy adopted by, 2, 3, 4
black soldiers in, 2, 4, 220–26, 228–29, 240, 243–44, 246–48, 256–63, 257, 258, 265–66, 268, 274, 288, 367
casualties in, 1–2, 163
Confederate officials arrested by, 287
Department of North Carolina in, 302
Department of Ohio in, 271–72
Department of the Cumberland in, 275, 297
Department of the East in, 271, 295, 297
Department of the Gulf in, 224, 244, 298
Department of the Missouri in, 188
Department of the South in, 207–8, 224, 240, 244
Department of the West in, 107–98
destruction and plunder by, 277–83
8th Illinois of, 172
18th Illinois of, 172
1st Kansas Volunteers of, 257
53rd Illinois in, 281
54th Massachusetts of, 223
judge advocates of, 264–73, 274
Lincoln’s Code issued to, 245, 247, 283
military commissions in, 229–30, 264, 266–73, 289–90
9th Illinois of, 170–72, 186, 196
occupation of New Orleans by, 1, 189
religious services in, 210
saving the country as paramount to, 4, 220
16th Iowa in, 281
South Carolina Volunteers in, 220–23, 221, 228–29, 235, 247
transport trains of, 191
uniforms of, 171, 187, 191
Union College, 265
Union Navy, 148–50, 164
Atlantic Blockading Squadron of, 147
Confederate and British ships seized by, 147, 149–50, 152–55, 157–59, 159
Eastern Gulf Blockading Squadron of, 152
Western Gulf Blockading Squadron of, 153
United Irishmen, 89
United Nations, 372
Charter of, 112
1977 controversial treaty promulgated by, 5
war outlawed by, 112
United States:
British relations with, 47, 60–70, 76–77, 111–17, 135–36, 142–50, 155–56, 164–69
defense spending in, 8, 95n
early policy of neutrality in, 52–66
empirical era in, 8
expansionist era in, 7
French relations with, 45, 46, 53–58, 82, 133, 143, 146, 150, 156
hawks in, 6, 61
history of war in, 5–9
Indian treaties with, 72n–73n, 96, 286, 330
influence on laws of warfare by, 2–3, 5–9, 15–16, 24, 26–29, 43–48
international diplomacy and treaties of, 44–48, 54–55, 59–66
as only military superpower, 8, 112
Prussian treaty with, 46, 47, 134
United States Exploring Expedition of 1842, 164
unlawful combatants, 102, 248
Urrea, José, 120
Ute Indians, 89
Vallandigham, Clement Laird, 271–73, 292, 308
Vallandigham case, 294, 311
Valley Forge, Pa., 54, 81
Van Buren, Martin, 87, 101, 115, 141
Vance, Zebulon, 287
Vanderbilt, USS, 154
Varnum, James, 39
Vattel, Emmerich de, 86, 96, 101, 128n, 165, 182, 186, 218
on laws of war, 16–19, 25, 28, 30, 32, 44, 50, 53, 64–65, 70–71, 85, 92–94, 114, 127, 129, 191
Vauban, Sébastien Le Prestre de, 84, 85
Vaughan, Benjamin, 45
Vera Cruz, 120, 123
Verdict of Battle, The: The Law of Victory and the Making of Modern War (Whitman), 231n
Vicksburg, Battle of, 255, 337
Vicksburg, Miss., 279
Vietnam War, 7, 354
View of the Rights and Wrongs, Power and Policy of the United States of America, A (Ingersoll), 82
Vincennes, 164
Vincennes, Battle of, 34, 35, 37, 107
Virginia, 1, 33–34, 37, 38, 67, 74, 77, 147, 169, 200, 201
constitution of, 28, 31, 199
executive council of, 39–40
frontier settlements of, 33–34
plantations of, 20, 29, 49
ports of, 54, 62, 145, 147
Virginia, University of, 273
Virginia House of Delegates, 74
Virginia Military Institute, 274
Virginia militia, 34–36, 38, 54, 107
alliance of Iroquois and, 13–14
fortifications of, 14
Washington’s service in, 13–15, 19–20
Virgin Islands, 154
Vitoria, Francisco de, 17, 18, 92
Vom Kriege (On War) (Clausewitz), 185
von Moltke, Helmuth, 342, 345, 364
Wabash, 157
Wabash River, 332
Waddell, John Hunter, 79
Wade, Benjamin, 289
Walker, Samuel H., 121
Wallace, James Watson, 295
Wallace, Lew, 298–99
Walzer, Michael, 7
Wampanoag Indians, 91
“War and the American Character” (Kennedy), 95n
war crimes, 5, 31, 118, 131–32, 138, 267–73, 286–87, 297, 323, 369
War Department, U.S., 195, 205, 229–30, 237, 248, 263, 319, 321, 328, 334, 363
Bureau of Military Justice in, 270, 289–96, 310, 316
military commissions of, 123–28, 130, 131, 132, 264, 289–304, 309–13, 330–34, 331, 336
War of 1812, 58, 66–71, 73–75, 78, 82, 84, 85, 88, 95–96, 101, 102, 136, 162
battles of, 66, 66, 122
cities burned in, 49–51, 71, 169
prisoners of war in, 66–69, 66
U.S. Army in, 67–69, 133, 134–35
U.S. declaration of war in, 70–71
war on terror, G. W. Bush and, 5
wars:
“American way of,” 5–6, 7
attractions of, 3
Christian theory on, 17
costs of, 45–46
crimes vs., 108, 109, 110–11, 115–19
eighteenth-century European spirit of, 16–20, 22–24, 28–29, 30, 32, 118
as elaborate games, 16, 209
escalation of violence in, 3, 17
of extermination, 6, 19, 200
foreign mercenaries in, 15, 20
Greco-Roman gods of, 88
“Hell” of, 11, 279
humanitarian reforms in, 338–42
imperatives of resolve and humility in, 373
internal tensions of, 4, 6
justification of, 17
just vs. unjust, 17–19, 20, 48, 178
limited, 16, 17, 19, 29
long, 16, 18
military technology in, 19
modern, 3, 4, 49, 113, 233–34, 236
moral significance of, 7–8, 16–18, 20, 177–78, 181
of occupation, 122–23
as organized murders, 109, 110–11
outlawing of, 112
partisans in, 385–86
photographs of, 340
plunder of cities and goods in, 17, 20
professionalizing of armies in, 19, 84–86
religious, 16
retaliation in, 37, 39–42, 49–51, 63–65, 121–22, 128–30, 159–60, 289
return to peace after, 18, 19
scars of, 1, 80
science of, 84–85
short, 184, 279, 325
struggle over European balance of power in, 19, 32
surrender in, 18, 28, 34, 391–92
treatment of the wounded in, 338–40
truce flags and agreements in, 4, 23, 25, 38, 67, 118, 202, 231, 308, 386–89
Washburn, Cadwallader, 248–49
Washington, D.C., 65, 74, 80–81, 89, 147, 363
boardinghouses in, 1, 3
British burning of, 49–51, 100, 169
Capitol building in, 1, 3, 50, 51, 100
Ford’s Theatre in, 288, 291, 297
Kirkwood House hotel in, 291
Library of Congress in, 50–51
Old Arsenal Penitentiary in, 291, 294, 301
Old Capitol Prison in, 287, 301
Smithsonian Institution in, 164
Washington, George, 34, 44, 106–7, 159, 354
childhood of, 19, 26
code of neutrality proclaimed by, 51–53
as Continental Army commander in chief, 13, 15, 20–23, 25–27, 35–37, 39–40, 43, 47–48, 100, 114, 126, 208
cult and mythology of, 26
diary of, 14
discipline of soldiers by, 19–20
French army attacked by, 13–14
laws of war violated by, 13–15, 47
military career of, 13–15, 19–23, 25–27, 35–37, 99
military honor and humanitarianism of, 14–15, 19, 22, 26–27, 37, 127
portrait of, 49
presidency of, 51–53, 72, 366, 370
as Virginia militia officer, 13–15, 19–20
as wealthy planter, 20
water cure, see torture
Waterloo, Battle of, 174, 175, 177, 179
Waud, Alfred, 143, 210, 262, 321
Wayne, Anthony, 24, 25–26
Wayne, James Moore, 273, 294, 308, 311
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 28
Webster, Daniel, 112–13, 115–17, 129, 137–38, 178
Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 116–17
Weed, Thurlow, 147–48, 166, 227
Weems, Mason, 26
Weichman, Louis J., 292
Welles, Gideon, 145–47, 148–50, 152, 153, 155–57, 164, 211, 238, 260, 308, 333
Welles, John Andrew, 165
Wenneste Indians, 332
West Point, N.Y., 112n, 179
fortifications at, 25
U.S. Military Academy at, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 96, 108, 137, 141, 177, 188, 211, 230, 253, 275–76, 278, 285–86, 328, 337, 346, 359
Wheaton, Henry, 60, 71, 82–83, 93, 94, 129, 165, 166, 199