The Marshall Plan
Page 73
Duclos, Jacques, 181–82, 186, 413
Dulles, Allen, 199, 241, 413
Dulles, John Foster, 58, 70, 82, 101, 187, 199, 230, 295, 413
Dunn, James, 186, 413, 568n
Durbrow, Elbridge, 268, 413
Eady, Wilfred, 63, 413
Earle, Edward Mead, 250–51, 413–14
Eaton, Charles, 34, 192–93, 414
Ebert, Friedrich (Fritz), 303, 414
Eccles, Marriner, 221, 414
Echols, Oliver, 65, 414
Economic Cooperation Act (1948), 247–48, 260, 306
see also Marshall Plan
Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA), 225, 262–63, 305, 315, 345–48, 351–56, 369, 568n–69n
Economic Council (Wirtschaftsrat), 208–9
economic depressions, 159, 161
economies of scale, 100–101
Economist, 101, 227, 261
Eden, Anthony, 3, 74, 79, 125, 414
Egypt, 24
Einaudi, Luigi, 350
Einstein, Albert, 356
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 33, 42, 56, 104, 241, 266, 293, 414, 425
elections, Soviet, 10, 27, 29
elections, U.S., 213, 219–20, 258, 282, 295, 301–2, 317, 413
elections, West Germany, 79–80, 236–37, 240, 254, 303–4, 335–37, 379, 381, 382
electricity, 324, 344
Elsey, George, 41, 42, 43–44, 220, 414
Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 392, 395, 414
Erhard, Ludwig, 274–75, 335, 361, 365, 414
Ertegün, Mehmet Münir, 24
espionage, 79, 241, 268–69, 277, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 319
Estonia, 73, 400, 401
Ethridge, Mark, 26, 414
Eurocommunism, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 227–28, 315, 353
Europe, Eastern:
Cominform programs for, 180, 182, 184, 185–86, 235–36, 257, 349, 371
Iron Curtain division of, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411
Marshall Plan rejected by, 135–45, 146, 235–45
Soviet domination of, 23, 70, 80–81, 82, 91, 108, 123, 138, 236–37, 242–44, 250–51, 259, 278, 324, 370–72, 390
Stalin’s policies on, 23, 70, 79, 80–81, 82, 91, 108, 123, 138, 236–37, 242–44, 250–51, 259, 278, 324, 335–36, 337, 370–72, 390
Warsaw Pact countries in, 275, 277, 379, 383–84, 387, 392, 393, 399
Europe, Western:
banking sector in, 221, 269, 285, 286, 348, 358
capitalism in, x, 10, 16–17, 57, 60, 73, 82, 100, 123, 126, 132, 138, 179, 186, 187–88, 209, 239, 275, 330–31, 335, 359, 386, 393, 520n
communist parties in, 19–20, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 227–28, 315, 353
consumer spending in, 95, 151, 158, 166, 186–97
credit support in, 11, 76–77, 106–7, 108, 121, 154, 362
currency reform in, 153–55, 159, 161, 220, 255, 270–72, 281, 285, 304, 307–8, 355, 358, 360–61, 367
customs barriers in, 66, 100–101
customs union for, 159, 162, 165, 173–74, 379; see also Benelux
deficits in, 21, 61, 161–62, 358–59, 362, 446–49, 570n
democracy in, 4, 8, 36, 37, 60, 105, 119, 126, 142, 180, 182, 192, 194, 197, 206, 229, 242–44, 256, 258, 259, 282, 335, 336, 359, 369, 392, 393, 395, 396, 400
dictatorships in, 29, 61, 71, 248, 503n–4n
dollar reserves of, 21, 22, 94, 95, 107, 154, 155, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 173, 186, 216, 220, 224, 227, 314, 344, 345, 347–48, 357, 363–64, 368, 370
exports of, 62, 67, 86, 105, 106–7, 153–54, 161, 168, 216, 221, 257, 263, 309, 331–32, 363–64, 369–70
food supplies in, 7, 64, 67, 68, 94, 106, 159, 161, 167, 190, 263, 272, 274, 279, 302, 307, 310, 342, 346, 353, 359, 361, 366–67, 369
foreign exchange controls for, 68, 140, 154, 165, 167, 172, 270–71, 344–45
free markets in, ix, 88, 100–101, 106–7, 158, 167–68, 185–97, 243, 330, 331–47, 348, 360, 369, 374, 402
gold reserves of, ix, 21, 26, 94, 95, 101, 154, 161, 216, 227, 344, 363
gross domestic product (GDP) of, 81, 86, 197, 342, 343, 348, 354, 358, 446–49
gross national product (GNP) of, 342, 351–52, 358
imports of, 62–63, 64, 81, 95, 153–54, 161, 216, 220, 314, 344, 355, 364, 369–70
Iron Curtain division and, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411
living standards in, 61, 65, 107, 162, 166, 168, 174, 221, 341, 359, 368
maps of, 42–43, 101, 177, 296, 456–60
Marshall Plan supported by, 118–19, 122, 126–28, 130, 132–33, 145, 146–60, 176, 189–91, 202–10, 214, 227–28, 305–7, 313–14, 326–28, 331–32, 352–54, 362–65
military security for, x, 33–34, 44, 150, 280, 302, 318–22, 325, 327, 335, 356, 369, 371, 373, 375, 379, 380–84, 385, 387–403, 415, 574n, 577n
nationalism in, 79, 81, 181, 195, 310, 326, 336, 387, 400
political map (1943) for, 458
political map (1949) for, 459
price controls in, 168, 220, 221, 270, 307, 346, 361
production in, 77, 81–82, 94–95, 163, 168–69, 174, 366
protectionism in, 51, 66, 88, 100–101, 155–56, 158–59, 167–68, 172, 216, 223, 306, 363–65, 369
revolutionary violence in, 186–89
tariffs in, 51, 100, 158–59, 165, 223, 314, 401
totalitarianism in, 29, 61, 71, 89, 190–91, 212, 214, 248, 276, 503n–4n
trade deficits in, 67–68, 70, 140, 141, 154, 173, 221, 307, 358, 362–65, 369–70
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 153, 322
European Community (EC), 381, 387
European Economic Commission, 118, 174
European Economic Community (Common Market), 153, 188, 322
“European Group,” 227
European Payments Union (EPU), 154–55, 348, 362, 363, 364, 366, 572n
European Recovery Program (ERP), see Marshall Plan
European Union (EU), x, 322, 373, 375, 380–81, 384, 391, 393, 395–96, 401–3, 577n
Export-Import Bank, U.S., 244, 568n–69n
exports, 62, 67, 86, 105, 106–7, 153–54, 161, 168, 216, 221, 257, 263, 309, 331–32, 363–64, 369–70
Extraordinary Peoples’ Courts, 16
factories, 94–95
Falin, Valentin, 380–81
Farewell Address (Washington), 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320
fascism, 2, 16, 80, 181, 184, 350
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 232
federalization, 80, 131, 169, 249
Federal Reserve System, 220, 221
Feierabend, Ladislav, 143, 414
Ferguson, Homer, 192, 415
Fifteen Weeks, The (Jones), 32, 418
fifth columns, 371
Finland, 2–3, 7, 19, 126, 148, 244–45, 251, 252, 395
first-charge principle, 64, 67
food supplies, 7, 64, 67, 68, 94, 106, 159, 161, 167, 190, 263, 272, 274, 279, 302, 307, 310, 342, 346, 353, 359, 361, 366–67, 369
see also starvation
Foreign Affairs, 30–32, 43, 90–91, 198–99, 255–56, 326, 328, 395
Foreign Assistance Act (1948), 260, 568n–69n
see also Marshall Plan
“foreign entanglements,” 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320
foreign exchange controls, 68, 140, 154, 165, 167, 172, 270–71, 344–45
Foreign Office, British, 125, 127, 158, 230
Foreign Policy Concept (FPC), 394–95, 401
foreign trade, 20, 22, 88, 124, 135, 149, 153–55, 269–70, 313, 325, 368
Forrestal, James, 30, 33, 87, 92, 214, 230, 316–17, 415
Four Power (Quadripartite) agreement, 95, 208, 273, 286, 288, 290–91, 308, 310, 323, 329–33, 361, 379–80
Fourteen Points, 88
France, 2, 10, 16, 18–20, 35, 47, 51, 61, 66–69, 94, 100, 101, 106, 108, 118, 121–23, 129, 131–33, 136, 140, 141, 147–53, 155, 161–64, 170, 175, 176, 181–91, 201, 203, 210, 211, 216, 221, 227,
230, 240, 249–55, 263, 295, 315, 318, 320, 322, 336, 342–56, 360–68, 374, 386, 403
Franco, Francisco, 148, 260
François-Poncet, André, 335–36, 415
Frankfurt, 106, 206, 272
Franklin, Benjamin, 340, 566n
Franks, Oliver, 148, 155, 156, 159, 162, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 314, 415
Free Democratic Party (FDP), 304, 335
free markets, ix, 88, 100–101, 106–7, 158, 167–68, 185–97, 243, 330, 331–47, 348, 360, 369, 374, 402
French Communist Party, 66, 108, 121, 130, 170, 181–82, 185–88, 216–17, 230, 271, 349–51, 353, 355–56
French zone, 65, 66–67, 68, 69, 82, 249, 321, 542n
Friedensburg, Ferdinand, 290, 310, 415
Gaddis, John Lewis, 375, 415
Gaidar, Yegor, 400, 415
Ganeval, Jean, 274, 279, 415
Gaullism, 64, 122, 271, 350–51, 353, 355–56
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 172, 370
Geneva talks, 165–66
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 378, 415
George VI, King of England, 97, 124, 125
Georgia, 23–24, 72, 396–97, 398, 399, 402
Gerashchenko, Vladimir, 157, 194, 415
German Communist Party (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands) (KPD), 75–76, 79, 80, 204
Germany, East:
communist control of, 75–76, 79, 80, 204
as German Democratic Republic (GDR), 336–37
postwar conditions in, 7–8
Soviet troops in, 237, 382–84
Stalin’s policies on, 79, 324, 335–36, 337, 372
Volksrat (People’s Council) of, 336
see also Berlin, East
Germany, Nazi, 18, 27, 34, 39, 47, 60, 73, 79, 80–81, 188, 215, 238, 242, 270, 276, 278, 358, 386
Germany, Occupied:
Bizonia area in, 60, 68, 69, 76, 105–6, 149, 151, 153, 203, 206, 207, 208, 249, 274–75
British zone of, 18, 62, 65, 68, 208, 360–61
currency convertibility in, 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–70, 364–65, 382–83
deindustrialization of, 6, 8–9, 66, 81–82, 150–51, 152
demilitarization of, 75, 76, 281, 316
de-Nazification of, 80–81, 106, 161
federalization of, 80, 131, 169, 249
Four Power agreement for, 95, 208, 273, 286, 288, 290–91, 308, 310, 323, 329–33, 361, 379–80
French zone of, 65, 66–67, 68, 69, 82, 249, 321, 542n
goods and services in, 95, 154, 158, 159, 325, 331–32, 342, 346, 349, 357, 361, 364, 370, 382
humanitarian crisis in, 87, 94–96, 189–90, 227, 277
industrial production of, 62, 68, 82, 105–7, 149, 151, 159, 160–62, 167, 176–84, 187, 189–90, 203, 211, 249, 255, 303, 304, 329–30, 341–42, 357, 359–61, 367, 374
map of, 457
military governors of, 64–65, 68, 89, 103–7, 134, 151–52, 203, 206–7, 270–75, 278, 282, 287–90, 302, 307–8, 321–25, 334, 357, 359–60, 367, 372
Morgenthau Plan for, 6, 8–9, 89, 90, 96, 99, 104–5, 115, 149, 151, 183, 209, 225–26, 357, 424
occupation zones in, 4, 63–64, 70, 457; see also specific zones
pastoralization of, x, 66, 89, 115, 149, 161
reparations policy for, 4, 6–7, 60–71, 75–79, 85, 107, 109, 123, 128, 131, 176, 203–6, 249, 266, 276, 281, 310, 313, 325, 330, 331, 337, 356–58, 361, 362, 368
reunification of, 209, 326, 377–78, 379, 381, 382, 419, 427, 430, 557, 562, 570n
Rhine region of, 82, 103, 252
Saar region of, 62, 66–67, 69, 150, 322, 356
Soviet zone of, 20, 79–81, 228, 270, 271, 272, 275, 280, 281–82, 285, 329–30, 336
starvation in, 15, 18, 89, 95, 99–100, 105, 170, 208–9, 244, 245, 275, 358
trade in, 20, 22, 88, 124, 135, 149, 153–55, 269–70, 313, 325, 368
U.S. zone of, 64–65, 68, 89–90, 104, 209, 270, 286, 308, 329–30, 360–61
war damage in, 342, 344, 357
winter conditions in (1947), 346, 569n–70n
Germany, West:
Acheson’s policies on, 298, 311, 312, 322, 326, 328, 332–34, 336
Basic Law (Grundgesetz) in, 329, 381
Bonn constitutional convention (1948) for, 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331
Bonn government of, 322, 325, 329
currency of (deutschmark) (DM), 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–76, 278, 279, 283–85, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 307–8, 311, 312, 325, 330, 358, 360–65, 382–84
elections in, 79–80, 236–37, 240, 254, 303–4, 335–37, 379, 381, 382
reconstruction of, 51, 118–19, 140–41, 149–50, 206–10, 313–14, 336, 357–62, 378–79
see also Berlin, West
Geschke, Ottomar, 303, 415
Gibbon, Edward, 328
Gilbert, Charles, 200, 415
gold reserves, ix, 21, 26, 94, 95, 101, 154, 161, 216, 227, 344, 363
Gomułka, Władysław, 185, 415
goods and services, 95, 154, 158, 159, 325, 331–32, 342, 346, 349, 357, 361, 364, 370, 382
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 378, 379, 381–82, 383, 387, 388, 391, 392, 397, 415
Gore, Al, 374, 416
Gottwald, Klement, 138, 139, 142, 143, 237, 238–39, 240, 242, 244, 266, 416
Grachev, Pavel, 387, 416
grain supplies, 170, 237, 243–44, 298, 353
Grand Alliance, 29
Grand Strategy, 403–4
Great Britain, 2, 3, 10, 11, 19–26, 35–39, 47, 51, 62, 63, 74, 76, 81, 85, 89, 94, 97, 99, 101, 106, 123–32, 136, 140, 149, 155, 159, 161–73, 190, 222, 227, 235, 249, 251, 255, 267, 282, 307, 345, 348, 349, 360, 363, 367, 368, 386, 403
Great Depression, 51
Great Powers, 141, 175–76
Greece, 16, 18–19, 21, 22, 26, 31–39, 40, 42, 44–52, 87, 94, 147, 156–57, 160, 166, 175, 185, 213, 245, 259–60, 266, 269, 342, 343, 374, 509n
Griffis, Stanton, 137, 416
Gromyko, Andrei, 10, 49, 125, 267–69, 333, 400, 416
gross domestic product (GDP), 81, 86, 197, 342, 343, 348, 354, 358, 446–49
gross national product (GNP), 342, 351–52, 358
Grotewohl, Otto, 80, 336–37, 416
Grundgesetz (Basic Law), 329, 381
guerrilla movements, 48
Haffner, Sebastian, 175, 416
Hála, František, 144, 416
Hall, Alvin, 270, 416
Halle, Louis, Jr., 321, 386, 416
Halleck, Charles, 192, 416
Halvorsen, Gail, 302, 416
Hamilton, Alexander, 27
Harding, Warren G., 88
Harriman, W. Averell, 19, 28–29, 63, 75, 76–77, 88, 91, 133, 194–98, 214, 226, 247, 251, 263, 314–15, 340–41, 416
Harriman Committee (President’s Committee on Foreign Aid), 194–98, 222–23, 263, 343, 345, 416, 532n
Harvard University, 109–10, 111, 160, 194, 199, 212, 261, 335, 344, 353, 384, 400, 441–44
Hawkins, Harry, 166, 416–17
Hay, John, 88, 417
Hazlitt, Henry, 216, 345
hegemony, 46, 90–93, 175–76, 337
Helmstedt, 273, 324
Henderson, Loy, 33, 36, 417
Herman, Stewart, Jr., 200, 417
Herter, Christian, 190, 193, 194, 417
Herter Committee, 193–94, 197, 198, 224
Hessian referendum (1947), 360
Hickerson, John, 160, 241, 252–53, 260, 320, 351, 417
Hinton, Harold, 189, 417
Hiroshima bombing (1945), 9–10, 282
Hirschfeld, H. M. H., 153–54
Hitler, Adolf, 5, 17, 19, 23, 26, 58, 71, 73, 85, 106, 137–38, 228, 239, 241, 252, 317, 386
Hobbes, Thomas, 17
Hoffman, Clare, 258, 417
Hoffman, Paul, 133, 195, 196, 197, 198, 262–63, 305–6, 315, 335, 347, 372, 417
Holbrooke, Richard, 393, 394, 398–99, 417
Holocaust, 106
Hoover, Herbert, 81–82, 215, 258, 417<
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Hopkins, Harry, 5, 18–19, 77, 417
Hottelet, Richard, 65, 418
Houdek, Vladimír, 267, 268–69, 418
House of Commons, British, 125
House of Representatives, U.S., 9, 34, 38, 39, 43, 169–70, 198, 201, 211–12, 213, 221, 225, 226, 228–30, 251, 260, 309, 321
Foreign Affairs Committee of, 38, 198, 211–12, 225, 229–30, 321
Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) of, 9
housing, 17, 159–60, 352, 357
Hugo, Victor, 72
Hull, Cordell, 8, 51, 88, 418
humanitarian crisis, 87, 94–96, 189–90, 227, 277
Humelsine, Carl, 109–10, 418
Hungary, 7, 16, 18, 19, 35, 71, 126, 128, 142, 148, 184, 228, 306, 384, 385, 391, 393, 396, 400, 529n–30n
hunger, 15, 18, 89, 95, 99–100, 105, 170, 208–9, 244, 245, 275, 358
Iceland, 147, 318, 386
Ignatiev, D., 276–77
imperialism, 10, 49, 119–20, 175–76, 180, 182–83, 201, 228, 237, 239
imports, 62–63, 64, 81, 95, 153–54, 161, 216, 220, 314, 344, 355, 364, 369–70
India, 21, 26, 386
industrial production, 62, 68, 82, 105–7, 149, 151, 159, 160–62, 167, 176–84, 187, 189–90, 203, 211, 249, 255, 303, 304, 329–30, 341–42, 357, 359–61, 367, 374
inflation, 18, 81, 90, 94, 100, 154, 195, 215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 224, 230, 271, 342, 346, 348, 349, 352, 353, 362, 366, 446–49, 567n
“insistent wish,” Stalin’s, 284, 286, 287–88, 311, 313
intelligence operations, 79, 241, 268–69, 277, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 319
interest rates, 216, 353
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), 39, 52, 167, 174, 197
International Conference of Socialist Parties (1948), 227–28
International Monetary Fund (IMF), ix, 2, 8, 11, 99, 153, 154, 162, 167, 200, 221, 341, 370, 569n
International Trade Organization (ITO), 2, 156, 158, 159, 163, 167
International Workers’ Olympiad (1937), 180
Inverchapel, Lord (Archibald Clark Kerr), 22, 32, 418
Iran, 11, 23, 24, 31–32, 35, 175, 375
Iraq, 375, 397
Ireland, 147, 318, 383
Iron Curtain division, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411
isolationism, 2, 31, 36, 45, 49, 97, 189, 223, 247, 320–21, 371
Italian Communist Party, 108, 181, 182, 186, 187, 188–89, 216–17, 227, 261–62, 263, 349, 350, 356, 367–68
Italy, 16, 20, 35, 94, 103, 108, 126, 151, 153, 155, 158, 159, 161, 175, 181, 185, 194, 216, 221, 228, 258, 259, 261–62, 263, 305, 342, 344, 349, 353–55, 356, 359, 366, 367, 568n
Ivashov, Leonid, 390, 418