Spillover

by David Quammen

  Salomon, Rachelle, and Robert G. Webster. 2009. “The Influenza Virus Enigma.” Cell, 136.

  Santiago, Mario L., Friederike Range, Brandon F. Keele, Yingying Li, Elizabeth Bailes, Frederic Bibollet-Ruche, Cecile Fruteau, et al. 2005. “Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Free-Ranging Sooty Mangabeys (Cercocebus atys atys) from the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire: Implications for the Origin of Epidemic Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2.” Journal of Virology, 79 (19).

  Santiago, Mario L., Cynthia M. Rodenburg, Shadrack Kamenya, Frederic Bibollet-Ruche, Feng Gao, Elizabeth Bailes, Sreelatha Meleth, et al. 2002. “SIVcpz in Wild Chimpanzees.” Science, 295.

  Scrimenti, Rudolph J. 1970. “Erythema Chronicum Migrans.” Archives of Dermatology, 102.

  Sellers, R. F., and A. J. Forman. 1973. “The Hampshire Epidemic of Foot-and-Mouth Disease, 1967.” Journal of Hygiene, 71.

  Sellers, R. F., and J. Parker. 1969. “Airborne Excretion of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus.” Journal of Hygiene, 67.

  Selvey, L. A., R. M. Wells, J. G. McCormack, A. J. Ansford, K. Murray, R. J. Rogers, P. S. Lavercombe, et al. 1995. “Infection of Humans and Horses by a Newly Described Morbillivirus.” Medical Journal of Australia, 162.

  Selvey, Linda, Roscoe Taylor, Antony Arklay, and John Gerrard. 1996. “Screening of Bat Carers for Antibodies to Equine Morbillivirus.” Communicable Diseases, 20 (22).

  Severo, Richard. 1972. “Impoverished Haitians Sell Plasma for Use in the U.S.” The New York Times, January 28.

  Sexton, Christopher. 1991. The Seeds of Time: The Life of Sir Macfarlane Burnet. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Shah, Keerti V. 2004. “Simian Virus 40 and Human Disease.” The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 190.

  Shah, Keerti, and Neal Nathanson. 1976. “Human Exposure to SV40: Review and Comment.” American Journal of Epidemiology, 103 (1).

  Sharp, Paul M., and Beatrice H. Hahn. 2010. “The Evolution of HIV-1 and the Origin of AIDS.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 365.

  Shilts, Randy. 1987. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic. New York: St Martin’s Griffin.

  Simpson, D. I. H., and the Members of the WHO/International Study Team. 1978. “Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever in Sudan, 1976.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 56 (2).

  Singh, Balbir, Lee Kim Sung, Asmad Matusop, Anand Radhakrishnan, Sunita S. G. Shamsul, Janet Cox-Singh, Alan Thomas, and David J. Conway. 2004. “A Large Focus of Naturally Acquired Plasmodium knowlesi Infections in Human Beings.” The Lancet, 363 (9414).

  Smith, Davey, and Diana Kuh. 2001. “Commentary: William Ogilvy Kermack and the Childhood Origins of Adult Health and Disease.” International Journal of Epidemiology, 30.

  Snow, John 1855. On the Mode of Communication of Cholera. London: John Churchill.

  Sompayrac, Lauren. 2002. How Pathogenic Viruses Work. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

  Sorensen, J. H., D. K. Mackay, C. O. Jensen, and A. I. Donaldson. 2000. “An Integrated Model to Predict the Atmospheric Spread of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus.” Epidemiology and Infection, 124.

  Stearns, Jason K. 2011. Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs.

  Steere, Allen C. 2001. “Lyme Disease.” New England Journal of Medicine, 345 (2).

  Steere, Allen C., and Stephen E. Malawista. 1979. “Cases of Lyme Disease in the United States: Locations Correlated with Distribution of Ixodes dammini.” Annals of Internal Medicine, 91.

  Steere, Allen C., Stephen E. Malawista, John A. Hardin, Shaun Ruddy, Philip W. Askenase, and Warren A. Andiman. 1977a. “Erythema Chronicum Migrans and Lyme Arthritis, The Enlarging Clinical Spectrum.” Annals of Internal Medicine, 86 (6).

  Steere, Allen C., Stephen E. Malawista, David R. Snydman, Robert E. Shope, Warren A. Andiman, Martin R. Ross, and Francis M. Steele. 1977b. “Lyme Arthritis. An Epidemic of Oligoarticular Arthritis in Children and Adults in Three Connecticut Communities.” Arthritis and Rheumatism, 20 (1).

  Stepan, Nancy Leys. 2011. Eradication: Ridding the World of Diseases Forever? London: Reaktion Books.

  Strauss, James H., and Ellen G. Strauss. 2002. Viruses and Human Disease. San Diego: Academic Press.

  Sureau, Pierre H. 1989. “Firsthand Clinical Observations of Hemorrhagic Manifestations in Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever in Zaire.” Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 11 (S4).

  Switzer, William M. 2005. “Ancient Co-Speciation of Simian Foamy Viruses and Primates.” Nature, 434.

  Taylor, Barbara S., Magdalena E. Sobieszczyk, Francine E. McCutchan, and Scott M. Hammer. 2008. “The Challenge of HIV-1 Subtype Diversity.” New England Journal of Medicine, 358 (15).

  Timen, Aura, Marion P. G. Koopmans, Ann C. T. M. Vossen, Gerard J. J. van Doornum, Stephan Gunther, Franchette Van den Berkmortel, Kees M. Verduin, et al. 2009. “Response to Imported Case of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever, The Netherlands.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 15 (8).

  Towner, Jonathan S., Brian S. Amman, Tara K. Sealy, Serena A. Reeder Carroll, James A. Comer, Alan Kemp, Robert Swanepoel, et al. 2009. “Isolation of Genetically Diverse Marburg Viruses from Egyptian Fruit Bats.” PLoS Pathogens, 5 (7).

  Towner, Jonathan S., Tara K. Sealy, Marina L. Khristova, César G. Albariño, Sean Conlan, Serena A. Reeder, Phenix-Lan Quan, et al. 2008. “Newly Discovered Ebola Virus Associated with Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreak in Uganda.” PLoS Pathogens, 4 (11).

  Tu, Changchun, Gary Crameri, Xiangang Kong, Jinding Chen, Yanwei Sun, Meng Yu, Hua Xiang, et al. 2004. “Antibodies to SARS Coronavirus in Civets.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10 (12).

  Tutin, C. E. G., and M. Fernandez. 1984. “Nationwide Census of Gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and Chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) Populations in Gabon.” American Journal of Primatology, 6.

  Van den Brom, R., and P. Vellema. 2009. “Q Fever Outbreaks in Small Ruminants and People in The Netherlands.” Small Ruminant Research, 86.

  Van der Hoek, W., F. Dijkstra, B. Schimmer, P. M. Schneeberger, P. Vellema, C. Wijkmans, R. ter Schegget, et al. “Q Fever in The Netherlands: An Update on the Epidemiology and Control Measures.” Eurosurveillance, 15.

  Van Rooyen, G. E. 1955. “The Early History of Psittacosis.” In Psittacosis: Diagnosis, Epidemiology and Control, ed. F. R. Beaudette. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

  Uppal, P. K. 2000. “Emergence of Nipah Virus in Malaysia.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 916.

  Varia, Monali, Samantha Wilson, Shelly Sarwal, Allison McGeer, Effie Gournis, Elena Galanis, Bonnie Henry, et al. 2003. “Investigation of a Nosocomial Outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Toronto, Canada.” Canadian Medical Association Journal, 169 (4).

  Volberding, Paul A., Merle A. Sande, Joep Lange, Warner C. Greene, and Joel E. Gallant, eds. 2008. Global HIV/AIDS Medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier.

  Voyles, Bruce A. 2002. The Biology of Viruses. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

  Wacharapluesadee, Supaporn, Boonlert Lumlertdacha, Kalyanee Boongird, Sawai Wanghongsa, Lawan Chanhome, Pierrie Rollin, Patrick Stockton, et al. 2005. “Bat Nipah Virus, Thailand.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11 (12).

  Walsh, Peter D., Roman Biek, and Leslie A. Real. 2005. “Wave-Like Spread of Ebola Zaire.” PLoS Biology, 3 (11).

  Walsh, Peter D., Thomas Breuer, Crickette Sanz, David Morgan, and Diane Doran-Sheehy. 2007. “Potential for Ebola Transmission Between Gorilla and Chimpanzee Social Groups.” The American Naturalist, 169 (5).

  Walters, Marc Jerome. 2003. Six Modern Plagues: And How We Are Causing Them. Washington: Island Press/Shearwater Books.

  Wamala, Joseph F., Luswa Lukwago, Mugagga Malimbo, Patrick Nguku, Zabulon Yoti, Monica Musenero, Jackson Amone, et al. 2010. “Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Associated with Novel Virus Strain, Uganda, 2007–2008.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 16 (7).

  Waters, A. P., D. G. Higgins, and T. F. McCutchan. 1991. “Plasmodium falciparum Appears to Have Arise
n as a Result of Lateral Transfer Between Avian and Human Hosts.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 88.

  Webster, Robert G. 1998. “Influenza: An Emerging Disease.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 4 (3).

  ———. 2004. “Wet Markets—a Continuing Source of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and Influenza?” The Lancet, 363 (9404).

  ———. 2010. “William Graeme Laver, 3 June 1929–26 September 2008.” Biographical Memoirs of the Fellows of the Royal Society, 56.

  Weeks, Benjamin S., and I. Edward Alcamo. 2006. AIDS: The Biological Basis. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

  Weigler, Benjamin J. 1992. “Biology of B Virus in Macaque and Human Hosts: A Review.” Clinical Infectious Diseases, 14.

  Weiss, Robin A. 1988. “A Virus in Search of a Disease.” Nature, 333.

  ———. 2001. “The Leeuwenhoek Lecture 2001. Animal Origins of Human Infectious Disease.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B, 356.

  Weiss, Robin A., and Jonathan L. Heeney. 2009. “An Ill Wind for Wild Chimps?” Nature, 460.

  Weiss, Robin A., and Angela R. McLean. 2004. “What Have We Learnt from SARS?” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B, 359.

  Weiss, Robin A., and Richard W. Wrangham. 1999. “From PAN to Pandemic.” Nature, 397.

  Wertheim, Joel O., and Michael Worobey. 2009. “Dating the Age of the SIV Lineages that Gave Rise to HIV-1 and HIV-2.” PLoS Computational Biology, 5 (5).

  White, N. J. 2008. “Plasmodium knowlesi: The Fifth Human Malaria Parasite.” Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46.

  Williams, Jim C., and Herbert A. Thompson. 1991. Q Fever: The Biology of Coxiella burnetii. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

  Willrich, Michael. 2011. Pox: An American History. New York: Penguin.

  Wills, Christopher. 1996. Yellow Fever, Black Goddess: The Coevolution of People and Plagues. New York: Basic Books.

  Wilson, Edward O. 2002. “The Bottleneck.” Scientific American, February.

  Wolf, R. H., B. J. Gormus, L. N. Martin, G. B. Baskin, G. P. Walsh, W. M. Meyers, and C. H. Binford. 1985. “Experimental Leprosy in Three Species of Monkeys.” Science, 227.

  Wolfe, Nathan. 2011. The Viral Storm: The Dawn of a New Pandemic Age. New York: Times Books/Henry Holt.

  Wolfe, Nathan D., Claire Panosian Dunavan, and Jared Diamond. 2004. “Origins of Major Human Infectious Diseases.” Nature, 447.

  Wolfe, Nathan D., William M. Switzer, Jean K. Carr, Vinod B. Bhullar, Vedapuri Shanmugam, Ubald Tamoufe, A. Tassy Prosser, et al. 2004. “Naturally Acquired Simian Retrovirus Infections in Central African Hunters.” The Lancet, 363 (9413).

  Woolhouse, Mark E. J. 2002. “Population Biology of Emerging and Re-emerging Pathogens.” Trends in Microbiology, 10 (10, Suppl.).

  Worboys, Michael. 2000. Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  World Health Organization. 2006. SARS: How a Global Pandemic Was Stopped. Geneva: World Health Organization.

  Worobey, Michael. 2008. “The Origins and Diversification of HIV.” In Global HIV/AIDS Medicine, ed. P. A. Volberding, M. A. Sande, J. Lange, W. C. Greene, and J. E. Gallant. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier.

  Worobey, Michael, Marlea Gemmel, Dirk E. Teuwen, Tamara Haselkorn, Kevin Kuntsman, Michael Bunce, Jean-Jacques Muyembe, et al. 2008. “Direct Evidence of Extensive Diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960.” Nature, 455.

  Wrong, Michela. 2001. In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu’s Congo. New York: HarperCollins.

  Xu, Rui-Heng, Jian-Feng He, Guo-Wen Peng, De-Wen Yu, Hui-Min Luo, Wei-Sheng Lin, Peng Lin, et al. 2004. “Epidemiologic Clues to SARS Origin in China.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10 (6).

  Yates, Terry L., James N. Mills, Cheryl A. Parmenter, Thomas G. Ksiazek, Robert R. Parmenter, John R. Vande Castle, Charles H. Calisher, et al. 2002. “The Ecology and Evolutionary History of an Emergent Disease: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome.” BioScience, 52 (11).

  Young, P., H. Field, and K. Halpin. 1996. “Identification of Likely Natural Hosts for Equine Morbillivirus.” Communicable Diseases Intelligence, 20 (22).

  Zhong, N. S., B. J. Zheng, Y. M. Li, L. L. M. Poon, Z. H. Xie, K. H. Chan, P. H. Li, et al. 2003. “Epidemiology and Cause of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People’s Republic of China, in February, 2003.” The Lancet, 362 (9393).

  Zhu, Tuofu, and David D. Ho. 1995. “Was HIV Present in 1959?” Nature, 374.

  Zhu, Tuofu, Bette T. Korber, Andre J. Nahmias, Edward Hooper, Paul M. Sharp, and David D. Ho. 1998. “An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic.” Nature, 391.

  Zimmer, Carl. 2011. A Planet of Viruses. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

  Zinsser, Hans. 1934. Rats, Lice and History. Reprint edition (undated), New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers.

  Acknowledgments

  This book had its earliest origin around a campfire in a Central African forest, in July 2000, when two Gabonese men spoke to me about the Ebola outbreak that had struck their village, Mayibout 2, and the thirteen dead gorillas they had seen nearby in the forest around the same time their family members and friends were dying. My thanks must therefore go first to those two men: Thony M’Both and Sophiano Etouck. I’m also indebted to the people who put me at that campfire: Bill Allen, Oliver Payne, Kathy Moran, and their colleagues at National Geographic magazine; Nick Nichols, my photographic partner on that assignment (and on many others since); Tomo Nishihara and John Brown, logisticians; Neeld Messler, field assistant to Nick (and asset to us all); the Bantu and Pygmy crewmen who, serving as porters and much more, made the expedition through that Gabonese forest possible, including not just Thony and Sophiano but also Jean-Paul, Jacques, Celestin, Kar, Alfred, Mayombo, Boba, Yeye, and the point man with the machete, tireless Bebe; and most of all, J. Michael Fay, the mad dreamer of African conservation, whose dedication to preserving wild ecosystems and their fauna and flora is exceeded only, if at all, by his physical and intellectual toughness. Walking for weeks through Congolese and Gabonese forests with Mike Fay has been one of the great privileges of my life.

  And because National Geographic has continued to sustain me with other work and privileged field experiences in the years since—including the assignment that led to “Deadly Contact,” a feature story on zoonotic diseases, published in the October 2007 issue—I also declare here my ongoing gratitude to Chris Johns (editor in chief, having succeeded Bill Allen), Carolyn White, Victoria Pope, again my longtime editor Oliver Payne, and all the other people involved in producing that great magazine. Lynn Johnson did a brilliant job on the photographic side of “Deadly Contact.” Billy Karesh and Peter Daszak helped brainstorm the coverage plan for the article. Billy also provided fine company and veterinary insights on three continents. Peter Reid opened a crucial line into the subject when, in a former paddock near Brisbane, amid newly built houses and dark memories, he said: “That’s it. That’s the bloody tree.”

  Jens Kuhn, Charlie Calisher, and Mike Gilpin read the complete book in draft and gave me many invaluable corrections, suggestions, and remonstrations. Their expertise, thoroughness, and generosity made the book much better, but don’t hold them responsible for any of its failings. Karl Johnson, from a very early stage, shared his thoughts and memories as an expert and as a friend, and allowed me to read his own book-in-progress on the Machupo story. Les Real counseled me on disease ecology and on the historical development of mathematical disease theory, from Bernoulli to Anderson and May. Karl Johnson, Les Real, and these other scientists and informants also found time to read and correct various sections in draft: Sazaly AbuBakr, Brian Amman, Brenda Ang, Michelle Barnes, Donald Burke, Aleksei Chmura, Jenny Cory, Janet Cox-Singh, Greg Dwyer, Gregory Engel, Jonathan Epstein, Kylie Forster, Emily Gurley, Beatrice Hahn, Barry Hewlett, Eddie Holmes, Lisa Jones-Engel, Jean-Marie Kabongo, Phyllis Kanki, Billy Ka
resh again, Brandon Keele, Eric Leroy, Steve Luby, Martin Muller, Judith Myers, Rick Ostfeld, Martine Peeters, Raina Plowright, Peter Reid, Hendrik-Jan Roest, Linda Selvey, Balbir Singh, Jaap Taal, Karen Terio, Dirk Teuwen, Jonathan Towner, Kelly Warfield, Robert Webster, and Michael Worobey. Lin-fa Wang gave me a day-long tour of the BSL-4 and other facilities at AAHL, in Geelong. Kelly Warfield likewise gave me a day, poured out her story, and got me into (and back out of) the Slammer. Ian Lipkin opened his lab and his people to me as well. Quite a few other scientists, mentioned below, trusted me with the opportunity to accompany them during fieldwork. Larry Madoff provided me inestimable assistance, without knowing it, through his ProMED-mail alerts on disease incidents around the world. And there were many others, so many, in so many places, who aided my research efforts so variously—as interviewees or expert consultants or traveling companions or providers of leads—that my further thanks are best organized geographically and alphabetically.

  In Australia: Natalie Beohm, Jennifer Crane, Bart Cummings, Rebekah Day, Carol de Jong, Hume Field, Kylie Forster, Kim Halpin, Peter Hulbert, Brenton Lawrence, David Lovell, Deb Middleton, Nigel Perkins, Raina Plowright, Stephen Prowse, Peter Reid, Linda Selvey, Neil Slater, Craig Smith, Gary Tabor, Barry Trail, Ray Unwin, Craig Walker, Lin-fa Wang, Emma Wilkins, and Dick Wright.

  In Africa: Patrick Atimnedi, Bruno Baert, Prosper Balo, Paul Bates, Roman Biek, Ken Cameron, Anton Collins, Zacharie Dongmo, Bob Downing, Ofir Drori, Clelia Gasquet, Jane Goodall, Barry Hewlett, Naftali Honig, Jean-Marie Kabongo, Winyi Kaboyo, Glady Kalema-Zikusoka, Shadrack Kamenya, Billy Karesh, John Kayiwa, Sally Lahm, Eric Leroy, Iddi Lipende, Julius Lutwama, Pegue Manga, Neville Mbah, Apollonaire Mbala, Alastair McNeilage, Achille Mengamenya, Jean Vivien Mombouli, Albert Munga, J. J. Muyembe, Max Mviri, Cécile Neel, Hanson Njiforti, Alain Ondzie, Cindy Padilla, Andrew Plumptre, Xavier Pourrut, Jane Raphael, Trish Reed, Paul Roddy, Innocent Rwego, Jordan Tappero, Moïse Tchuialeu, Peter Walsh, Joe Walston, Nadia Wauquier, Beryl West, and Lee White.