Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  Chapter 15

  Panama Canal:

  The French efforts to construct a ground level canal in Columbia’s province of Panama were a total failure. Excavation began in 1881, but immediately encountered problems with Yellow Fever, avalanches, and collapse from mudslides and dynamite explosions. Of the 50,000 employees, 22,000 died from disease or accidents. Over 5,000 of those were French engineers. With the death toll escalating, qualified engineers refused to apply. The Panama Company went bankrupt in 1889. The French Parliament undertook a 4-year investigation which revealed the problems stemmed from massive corruption involving 104 legislatures.

  With new funding appropriated, construction resumed in 1894. However little progress occurred due to aging equipment and lack of workers. The Panama Canal Company entered its second bankruptcy.

  With little progress in sixteen years, Columbia voided the contract. The United States Secretary of State John Hay entered into negotiations to assume the contract. The new plans were for two pairs locks to raise and lower vessels during the transit, and the creation of an artificial lake by damming the Chagres River.

  For the United States to legally build a canal in Central America, Hay had to abrogate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom, which specifically forbade either nation to build a canal they exclusively controlled. Public opinion in the United States had been growing over the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty's restriction on that country's independent action. The British recognized their diminishing influence in the region and determined to cultivate the United States to counterbalance Germany's influence in Central and South America. Secretary Hay and the British Ambassador Lord Pauncefote open fresh negotiations in December 1990. Pauncefote’s instructions from the Foreign Office indicated he could concede anything but neutrality of access.

  Negotiations were lengthy, and the final version of the treaty was provided to McKinley to sign on November 8, 1901. McKinley sent it to the Senate which ratified it on December 16, 1901. The Hay–Pauncefote Treaty abrogated the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. It did not prohibit the United States from constructing fortifications and did not require the United States to keep the canal open in time of war. The Treaty ceded to the United States the right to build and manage a canal provided that all nations would be allowed access.

  The next step was to negotiate a treaty with Columbia, which ruled Panama as a province. In January 1903, John Hay entered into negotiations with the Columbian Ambassador Thomas Herran. The Hay-Herran Treaty provided for a $10,000,000 payment in gold coin plus an annual rent of $250,000. The United States Senate ratified the treaty on March 14. However, on August 12, the treaty was rejected by the Congress of Colombia, even though the Colombian government proposed the terms.

  Unwilling to renegotiate, the United States covertly supported the Panamanian rebellion, which began on July 24, 1903, when the Colombian Army assaulted El Lapiz newspaper building. The separatists in Panama rose up and defeated the Colombian garrison troops. The United States sent naval forces to delay the Columbian Army from sending reinforcements. Upon arrival, that army, led by General Esteban Huertas mutinied and joined the rebellion. On November 4, the Panamanians declared their independence and formed a provisional government, which was immediately recognized by the United States.

  On November 18, 1903, the ratification of Hay-Buena Varilla Treaty took place. That treaty guaranteed the independence of Panama and provided the United States total sovereignty over a ten-mile wide canal zone in perpetuity. The terms of payment were identical to the terms of the Hay-Harran Treaty.

  Carnegie Hall

  John Phillip Sousa scheduled a New Years Eve concert and invited the President and his wife to attend. Secretary of State John Hay, on his way to New Hampshire, accompanied the Presidential Party. President McKinley and his wife Ida sat in the Presidential box and enthusiastically applauded the patriotic music. Before conducting the Grand Finale with his famous march STARS AND STRIPES FOREVER, Sousa paused and saluted President McKinley and his wife. With the capacity crowd on their feet and loudly applauding Sousa’s band played the march. Three encores of Sousa’s other famous marches followed, with the final playing of STARS AND STRIPES FOREVER. President McKinley and Ida were on their feet cheering as loudly as the audience.

  Mckinley and Ida were talking animatedly about the music as they left Carnegie Hall and approached their carriage. Mckinley was heard to say: “That was the best musical performance of my life.” Suddenly three shots were fired. Two struck Mckinley in the chest; one hit Ida in the neck. Bleeding heavily, both collapsed on the stairs. McKinley reached over and grasped Ida’s hand, their eyes locked, McKinley mouthed: “I love you,” then Ida died.

  The assassin Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist was pounced upon by the crowd and beaten senseless before being hauled away to the local precinct by New York Police. There he was viciously beaten with batons before being tossed into a cell.

  Police rushed McKinley to New York General Hospital where he underwent emergency surgery. He never regained consciousness and died at 7 am.

  At 9 am on January 1, 1904, John Hay’s carriage pulled up to Vice President Roosevelt's home, Sagamore Hills, in Oyster Bay New York. Accompanying Hay was the Honorable John A Hazel, a District Court Judge. The Vice President, his wife Edith and six children were having breakfast. Looking at John Hay’s downcast demeanor, Theodore asked: Mr. Secretary, what has happened.”

  Hay Replied, “Mr. President, President McKinley and Ida were shot last night as they left Carnegie Hall. The President died at 7 am this morning. Ida is also dead. Judge Hazel is here to administer to you the oath of office.” With his family looking on, President Theodore Roosevelt placed his left hand on his family Bible, raised his right hand and repeated: “I Theodore Roosevelt do solemnly swear…..”

  Nine days after the funerals, Czolgosz went on trial for two counts of first-degree murder. He stood mute during his trial and did not cooperate with his defense attorneys. The jury convicted him, and the judge sentenced him to death by electrocution. Five weeks later Czolgosz, suffered execution by the electric chair.

  The Republican establishment expressed dismay about Roosevelt becoming the President. New York Lemuel Quigg and Thomas Platt originally convinced Roosevelt to run for Governor. He won narrowly but then disappointed the party bosses by taxing corporations and opposing trusts. However, Roosevelt gained in popularity with twice-daily news conferences, which connected him with middle-class voters. At the Republican Convention, Platt and Quigg convinced him to accept the Vice Presidency. They hoped that nominating him Vice President at the convention in 1900 would sideline him.

  On the other hand, McKinley's campaign manager Senator Mark Hanna from Ohio vigorously opposed Roosevelt’s nomination. When Roosevelt’s nomination became inevitable, Hanna replied to the question: “What was the matter”? Hanna responded: “Matter! Matter! Why everybody's gone crazy! What is the matter with all of you? Here's this convention going headlong for Roosevelt for Vice President. Don't any of you realize that there's only one life between that madman and the Presidency? Platt and Quigg are no better than idiots! What harm can he do as Governor of New York compared to the damage he will do as President if McKinley should die”?

  McKinley's death left Hanna devastated both personally and politically. As leader of the conservative wing of the party, and a close associate of McKinley, he was the most likely Republican Party candidate for President as McKinley previously indicated he would not run for a third term.

  Roosevelt reached out to Hanna, hoping to secure his influence in the Senate. Hanna indicated that he was willing to come to terms with Roosevelt on two conditions. First, that Roosevelt would continue McKinley's political agenda; and second that the President cease from his habit of calling Hanna "old man," something which greatly annoyed the senator. Hanna warned Roosevelt, "If you don't, I'll call you Teddy." Roosevelt, who despised his nickname, agreed to both terms.

  Their alliance would
not last long. On January 30, 1904, Mark Hanna contracted Typhoid Fever. As his condition worsened, Roosevelt visited him on February 15. Hanna was semi-conscious. Roosevelt tried to cheer him up indicating he was looking forward to Hanna’s advice and support in the coming Presidential campaign. Hanna died at 6 pm that evening. With the death of Hanna, there were no other potential candidates to oppose Roosevelt.

  Chapter 16

  The election of 1904

  The Republican Convention convened in Chicago on June 21 – 23. Roosevelt’s nomination was assured. He won the nomination on the first ballot, collecting all 994 votes. Roosevelt realized that to unite the party; he needed a conservative as the Vice Presidential nominee. Many conservatives viewed Roosevelt as a radical. He wisely let them choose among themselves their favorite nominee. The conservatives nominated Charles W Fairbanks on the first ballot.

  The platform became the next order of business. The platform planks insisted on the following.

  The continuation of protective tariffs.

  Called for an increase in foreign trade.

  Vowed to uphold the gold standard.

  Favored the expansion of the merchant marine.

  Promoted a strong navy.

  Praised in detail Roosevelt's continuation of McKinley’s foreign and domestic policies.

  The Democrat Party convention convened in St. Louis from July 6 – 9. In the months leading up to the convention, the Democrats fractionalized, resulting in a deep split between the conservative Bourbon Democrats and the progressive/populist wing. William Jennings Bryan, the twice defeated candidate in 1896 and 1900, declined to run for the nomination. He however worked against the party’s interest by trying to get the weakest candidate nominated. That way he could retain control of the party.

  The progressives turned to Representative William Randolph Hearst, the owner of eight newspapers. Hearst, whose newspapers vigorously supported W.J Bryan in 1896 and 1900 hoped for Bryans endorsement. Instead, Bryan endorsed Hearst’s populist rival Francis Cockrell, the four-time Senator from Missouri.

  The other leading candidate was Judge Alton Parker of New York. Parker’s main attributes were that being out of politics for twenty years, he did not have political enemies. Bryan despised him as Parker had ruled the law mandating the 8-hour workday law in New York unconstitutional.

  Conservatives, so alarmed that Hearst could get the nomination coalesced around Parker. On the first ballot, Parker received 658 votes, nine votes less than the required two-thirds majority. Before the announcement of the vote, 21 additional votes switched in his favor.

  Bryan continued to work behind the scenes to hinder Parker. Knowing that Parker favored the Gold Standard; Bryan inserted a plank that the platform favor bimetallism. Upon hearing of Bryan’s meddling, Parker threatened to decline the nomination. After rancorous debate, the convention voted to remove bimetallism from the platform, fearing a debacle if Parker withdrew. Bryan was outraged and charged that the trusts engineered the change, and secured it by crooked and indefensible means.

  The Democrats nominated West Virginia’s Senator Henry Davis as Vice President. They hoped he could deliver his state. Davis also owned mines, railroads and was a banker.

  The Democrat platform included the following planks.

  1. Reduction in government spending

  2. Breakup of monopolies

  3. Opposition to imperialism

  4. Independence of the Philippines

  5. Opposition to Tariffs

  6. Enforcement of 8-hour workday

  Two other parties participated in the elections. The Socialists nominated Eugene Debbs, and the Prohibitionist nominated Silas Swallow.

  On election day the Roosevelt – Fairbanks ticket won 58 percent of the popular votes, and 366 electoral votes, including all the states except for the “Solid South.” Missouri broke ranks in the south and voted for Roosevelt. The Parker – Davis ticket won 37 percent of the vote and 140 electoral votes. The socialists won 3 percent of the vote, and the Prohibitionists won 2 percent. With such a massive landslide, Roosevelt eagerly looked forward to using his mandate.

  In the congressional elections, the Republicans picked up 41 seats and increased their total to 272. The Democrat lost 46 seats reducing their total to 135. With seventy-five percent of their seats located in the deep south; the Democrat Party looked more and more like a regional party.

  The Populists lost all their seats, and the Parti Patriote increased their representation to 10 seats by capturing the last five previously Democrat seats in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario.

  The Caribbean states were solidly Republican and developed a distinctly Caribbean culture. The population was a mix of Hispanic, white industrial workers from the north and a large influx of blacks from the south. The construction of water, sewer and sanitation systems; and the wide use of DDT largely eradicated diseases such as Yellow Fever, Malaria, and Typhoid.

  Mandatory childhood attendance in public schools, with English as the primary language, created a literate and educated population. Religious freedom fostered rapid church growth and high levels of attendance. The Catholic churches predominated. However, multiple Protestant denominations experienced rapid growth. With booming economies in the three states, the various cultures blended in a unique mosaic.

  Chapter 17

  Roosevelt’s first foray into foreign relations came from the Russo-Japanese war of 1904 - 05. For over five years tensions between the two nations rose over the Russian occupation of Manchuria, and their naval base at Port Arthur. That directly threatened Japanese control of Korea.

  Months of negotiations ensued with little progress. Tsar Nicholas II was encouraged to stay strong by his cousin Kaiser William II, who referred to the Japanese and Chinese as the Yellow Peril. Japan and Great Britain were allies, with the British building many of the Japanese warships. That alliance also included a mutual defense treaty.

  With negotiations at a standstill, Japan broke off diplomatic relations with Russia. On February 4, 1904, Japan declared war on Russia. Three hours before the declaration reached the Russian diplomats, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Port Arthur with a flotilla of destroyers firing torpedos. The attack damaged two Russian Navy battleships and a cruiser. Additional naval battles fought around Port Arthur over the next two days proved to be indecisive.

  The Russian Far East Army invaded Korea and advanced past Seoul. The Japanese Imperial Army (JIA) defeated the poorly equipped Russian army and gradually drove it back. In a protracted and costly campaign, the JIA drove the Russians out of Korea, then besieged Port Arthur.

  The Russians responded by sending their Baltic fleet of eleven battleships and eight cruisers to relieve Port Arthur. The British closed the Suez Canal to the Russians after the Russian Navy fired on British fishing boats at Dogger Bank, mistaking them for Japanese torpedo boats. The Russians then sailed around Africa, a journey taking several months. By the time the Russian Fleet arrived, Port Arthur had fallen.

  The climactic battle of the war occurred at Tsushima Strait on May 27 & 28 1905. There the Imperial Japanese Navy destroyed the Russian fleet, sinking seven battleships and four cruisers. Four Russian battleships surrendered, and four cruisers escaped.

  Japan extended initial peace efforts for a negotiated settlement, by the United States, on March 8, 1905. On paper, they were winning the war. However, economic conditions and mounting debt discouraged a long drawn out war. When contacted through diplomatic channels, Tsar Nicholas II refused to negotiate believing Russia would win a long drawn out war.

  The Battle of Tsushima Strait changed his mind. On June 8, Tsar Nicholas agreed to peace negotiations. Roosevelt scheduled the peace conference in Portsmouth, NH.

  Foreign Minister Kromura Jutaro, assisted by the ambassador to Washington Takahira Kogoro led the Japanese delegation. The Finance Minister Sergei Witte, assisted by former ambassador to Japan Roman Rosen, and international law and arbitration specialist Friedrich Martens led
the Russian delegation. There were twelve sessions held between August 9 and August 30.

  During the first eight sessions, the delegates were able to reach an agreement several points. These included:

  An immediate cease-fire.

  Russia’s recognition of Japan's claims to Korea.

  The evacuation of Russian forces from Manchuria.

  Russia was also required to return its leases in southern Manchuria containing Port Arthur and Talien to China.

  Russia required to turn over the South Manchuria Railway and its mining concessions to Japan.

  Russia was allowed to retain the Chinese Eastern Railway in northern Manchuria.

  The remaining four sessions addressed the most difficult issues, those of reparations and territorial concessions. On August 18, Roosevelt proposed that Rosen offer to divide the island of Sakhalin to address the territory issue. The Japanese previously captured the island as a bargaining chip.