Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  On August 23, however, Witte proposed that the Japanese keep Sakhalin and drop their claims for reparations. When Komura rejected this proposal, Witte warned that he was instructed to cease negotiations and that the war would resume.

  This ultimatum came as four new Russian divisions arrived in Manchuria, and the Russian delegation made an ostentatious show of packing their bags and preparing to depart. Witte was convinced that the Japanese could not afford to restart the war and applied pressure via the American media and his American hosts to convince the Japanese that the monetary compensation issue was something that Russia would never compromise.

  Outmaneuvered by Witte, Komura yielded, and in exchange for the southern half of Sakhalin, the Japanese dropped their claims for reparations.

  The signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth occurred on September 5, 1905. The Japanese Privy Council ratified the treaty on October 10, and the Tsar in Russia on October 14, 1905.

  Because of the role played by President Theodore Roosevelt, the United States became a significant force in world diplomacy. Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his back-channel efforts before and during the peace negotiations, even though he never actually went to Portsmouth.

  The United States Navy War College studied the Battle of Tsushima Straights. The (IJN) Imperial Japanese Navy’s victory elevated them on the potential threat board. After considerable study and wargaming, the college determined several factors which contributed to the Japanese victory. Their report to the Department of the Navy contained assessments and recommendations.

  First, the IJN numerous naval battles with Russia’s Far East Fleet honed their command structure and gunnery skills.

  Second, the IJN utilized modern range finding equipment with effective targeting up to 6,000 meters. The Russian Navy utilized an older model of rangefinders with effective targeting up to 4,000 meters.

  Third, the IJN had unified command, whereas the Russian command structure was divided.

  Fourth, the IJN utilized high explosive rounds which exploded on impact. The Russian Navy utilized armor-piercing shells, which often failed to explode due to defective fuses.

  Fifth, the Russian Admirals failed to properly respond to Admiral Togo’s crossing their T. They ordered a general melee instead of a line abreast formation. A line abreast would have enabled all of their forward guns to be brought into action at the same time. The line abreast formation is also easily converted to a parallel battle line. The general melee order allowed the IJN battle line to target Russian battleships individually.

  The War College recommendations included new battleship construction with the positioning of two, triple gun turrets forward in a super firing position, with the number two turret elevated and positioned behind the first. Previous battleship designs only had one turret forward, and one aft. This arrangement would increase the firepower of the line abreast formation.

  The second recommendation suggested an increase in the gun dimensions from the current 12-inch to 14-inch or even 16-inch. The new caliber of guns would increase the range of effective combat and the destructive power of impact.

  The Department of the Navy accepted the recommendations and agreed to incorporate them into upcoming battleship designs.

  Chapter 18

  The Royal Navy began construction of HMS Dreadnought on October 2, 1905. Launched on February 10, 1906, and commissioned on December 2, 1906, HMS Dreadnought became the first all big gun battleship. Her armament included five, twin 12-inch gun turrets.

  The launching and commissioning of HMS Dreadnought caused all the other battleships to be obsolete. The term “Dreadnought” became widely used to differentiate the older battleships, now called pre-Dreadnoughts, from the newer battleship designs. The European powers, particularly the German Empire, engaged in a building frenzy, each competing to gain parity or supremacy over the Royal Navy.

  The United States Navy expedited construction on the two South Carolina Class battleships. Production delays and testing of the superfiring turrets had slowed completion. However, with new urgency, the commissioning ceremony for USS South Carolina occurred on March 31, 1907. Sea trials began immediately. Her sister ship, the USS Michigan joined the fleet on July 1.

  There were significant differences between the HMS Dreadnought and the South Carolina Class battleships. HMS Dreadnought’s five turrets were arranged one forward, one in the stern, one midship, and two on the wings, one starboard, and the other port. The barbettes that housed the turrets were flush with the deck. That meant that the stern and the midship guns could not be fired in the same direction simultaneously. Her main advantage was speed. HMS Dreadnought could cruise at 21 knots.

  The South Carolina Class battleships advantage concerned the arrangement of the turrets. With superfiring guns fore and aft, all their guns could fire in the same direction simultaneously. Their main disadvantage was speed. With a maximum speed of 18 knots, they could be outdistanced and outmaneuvered by HMS Dreadnought, and subsequent Royal Navy Dreadnoughts.

  HMS Dreadnought

  USS South Carolina

  During the next ten years, the United States Navy built twenty-two Dreadnoughts, with incremental improvements with each class. The next Dreadnoughts, the Delaware Class, substituted turbine engines for the triple expansion steam engines and added three knots of speed.

  The Florida Class were sixty feet longer than the Delaware Class, which allowed for the addition of a fifth midships turret. The next battleships, the Wyoming class lengthened the vessels another fifty feet and added a second midships turret in a superfiring position.

  The next class, the Texas Class Dreadnoughts had a new hull design. The prior Dreadnoughts used an enlarged Connecticut Class hull. This new class used a custom designed hull, specific for the battleship needs. These Dreadnoughts had five turrets of twelve-inch guns. These were the last battleships to use the twelve-inch guns.

  The next six Dreadnoughts were of standard design, utilizing the concept of customization to speed construction and to utilize the Panama Canal locks which were 110 feet in width. The battleships were 624 feet in length and 103 feet at the beam. The added length allowed them to carry four, triple gun turrets with the new fourteen-inch guns, which were the largest turrets and guns of any existing United States Navy battleships.

  Chapter 19

  Election of 1908

  The election marked the entry of two new states, Oklahoma and Columbia into the presidential campaign; both joined the union in 1907.

  Oklahoma was originally the home to the Osage and the Quapaw native tribes. It was commonly called Indian Territory. President Andrew Jackson forcefully settled five native tribes, plus their black slaves from east of the Mississippi to Indian Territory in the 1830’s during the Trail of Tears. The tribes joined the Confederacy. After the end of the Civil War, the tribes were forced to free their slaves 1866.

  Attempts to create an all-Indian state named Sequoyah failed, but the Sequoyah Statehood Convention of 1905 eventually laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Statehood Convention, which took place two years later. On November 16, 1907, Oklahoma became the fifty-third state in the Union.

  Migrants from Oregon, Washington, and California moved to Columbia shortly after the expulsion of the British. The Hudson Bay Company tried to exert control, as previously before British Columbia became a province, it was under Hudson Bay administration.

  The lower courts ruled against the Company. Several appeals later, the Supreme Court, based its decision on the wording of the Annexation Treaty. The Hudson Bay Company will sign a deal of surrender. The Company will retain ownership to Rupert’s Land and administration of their territory but must surrender sovereignty to the United States of America. As Columbia was not part of Rupert’s Land at the time of the treaty, the Supreme Court, in a unanimous decision, affirmed the lower court rulings that the Company did not have ownership or administrative rights. The court also established the northern border of the territory at the 54t
h parallel on the north, the Washington border on the south, and the continental divide on the east.

  With the final court ruling, President Grant appointed General George Crook as territorial Governor. Crook moved the territorial capital from Victoria to Vancouver. Grant extended the Homestead Act to the territory, and settlers began to move in and establish farms.

  The Northern Pacific Railroad laid track to Vancouver, which expedited settlement. In 1905 a plebiscite, to officially name the territory, selected Columbia over North Washington. That plebiscite paved the way for the Columbia Statehood Convention. On December 1, 1907, Columbia became the fifty-fourth state in the Union.

  The Republicans held their convention from June 16 to 19 in Chicago. The ticket of Roosevelt and Fairbanks were re-nominated by acclamation. The platform touted Roosevelt’s accomplishments at home and in foreign policy, particularly his Nobel Peace Prize for facilitating the Treaty of Portsmouth. Domestically a strong economy fueled business expansion. Charles Fairbanks anchored the conservative wing of the party.

  The Democrats held their convention in Denver between July 7 and 10. William Jennings Bryan won by acclimation and selected John Kern from Indiana as his running mate. Without the Free Silver issue, Bryan campaigned on a progressive platform attacking "government by privilege." His campaign slogan, "Shall the People Rule” was featured on numerous posters and campaign memorabilia. However, Roosevelt's progressive policies undercut Bryan’s liberal support and blurred the distinctions between the parties. Republicans also used the slogan "Vote for Roosevelt now, you can vote for Bryan anytime." That remark brought out loud cheers at Roosevelt rallies as it was a sarcastic reminder of Bryan's two previously failed presidential campaigns.

  On November 3, the final tally gave the Roosevelt – Fairbanks ticket 54 percent of the vote. The Bryan – Kern ticket won 40 percent. Oklahoma voted for Bryan, Columbia voted for Roosevelt. The Socialists won 3 percent, and other minor parties won a total of two percent. The Electoral College vote gave Roosevelt 371 votes and Bryan 172 votes. After his third defeat, Bryan vowed never again run for elected office. He remained the leader of the progressive wing of the Democrat party.

  In the Congressional elections, the Republicans won 263 seats, and the Democrats won 172. The Parti-Patriote retained their ten seats.

  Chapter 20

  Roosevelt’s second full term began with an economy recovering from the Panic of 1907. The panic occurred during a three-week period in October. The stock market lost almost fifty percent compared with the previous year peak. It started with the failure of the Knickerbocker Trust company, the third largest bank in New York. Knickerbocker attempted to corner the market on stock of the United Copper Company. To do so, it borrowed large sums of money from other major banks. The takeover failed, and Knickerbocker became insolvent.

  The bank runs started on Knickerbocker and its affiliate banks. Soon the runs hit the banks which loaned Knickerbocker money as depositors feared the banks did not have enough money to cover their deposits. Historians credit J.P. Morgan with ending the panic by infusing millions of dollars into the banks while encouraging other wealthy financiers to do the same. With liquidity restored, the bank runs ended.

  Roosevelt formed a commission to provide recommendations on how to stop the bank runs and panics which periodically plagued the economy. After two years of study, the commission recommended a quasi-governmental agency to regulate the banks. Roosevelt’s congressional allies proposed legislation to establish such an agency. Following much debate, Congress created the Federal Reserve System.

  Roosevelt became an activist in domestic and foreign affairs. His activities became known as The Big Stick Policy. The policy named after one of his favorite quotes stated: “Speak softly and carry a big stick. You will go far.” The idea was to speak softly in a non-aggressive manner, but always hold open the option for aggressive behavior. He used this in domestic affairs with his policies of busting trusts and opposing union strikes.

  Roosevelt applied Big Stick Diplomacy in foreign relations with his promotion of the rapid increases in the number, size, and quality of the United States Navy Dreadnought battleships. He based the Navy’s African Squadron in Monrovia, as a clear reminder that Liberia remained as a protectorate of the United States.

  Roosevelt faced a crisis in Mexico in 1909. He sponsored a summit meeting with Mexican President Porfirio Diaz in El Passo Texas. The summit aimed to shore up support for President Diaz and to protect the over nine billion dollars in American investments in Mexico. Diaz faced increased opposition to his twenty-five year Presidency.

  On October 16, both presidents narrowly escaped assassination when a Texas Ranger saw a man standing on the parade route palming a pistol. The Ranger confronted and arrested the would-be assassin moments before the open vehicle containing Roosevelt and Diaz drove past.

  Diaz experienced a convoluted path to the presidency of Mexico. In February 1870 Maximillian, leading his victorious army marched into Mexico City. President Benito Juarez was dead. His army betrayed and executed him in the public square.

  General Diaz, head of the last army opposing Maximillian sent a message seeking terms of surrender. Maximillian provided a safe conduct for Diaz to travel to Mexico City. There he knelt before his Emperor, kissed his ring, and pledged his loyalty. Maximillian accepted Diaz’s pledge of loyalty and allowed him to retire to his estates in Oaxaca.

  Maximillian died of cancer in 1876. His heir and adopted son Salvador de Iturbide succeeded him as Emperor. Salvador, unlike Maximillian, had little interest in governing. He invited Diaz to return from retirement and resume political life. In 1878, Diaz’s Nationalist Party won the congressional elections. The Emperor appointed him Prime Minister. Mexico, being a constitutional monarchy, allowed the prime minister and the Congress to run the day to day functioning of the government. Salvador became content to attend ceremonial functions, and entertain visiting heads of state.

  The former Empress Carlotta sank into a deep depression following the death of Maximillian. Late in 1881, with hopes of curing her depression, the Royal Family including Salvador, his wife Empress Giselle, his daughter Maria, and Carlotta sailed for an extended visit to Europe. Following more than a year of the absence of the Royal Family, Diaz planned a peaceful coup.

  Initially, Diaz planted stories and editorials in the newspapers lamenting the absence of the Emperor. Within several months discontent with the monarchy grew, and anti-monarchy demonstrations broke out. Diaz then publically broke with the monarchy and accused Salvador of abandoning his responsibilities to the people of Mexico.

  Congress then overwhelmingly passed legislation dissolving the monarchy; declared Mexico a republic, and scheduled elections. Diaz, as Prime Minister, and the leader of the largest political party governed until he was elected President of Mexico. Former Emperor Salvador, without substantial political or military support, signed a treaty with Diaz. In return for one million dollars in gold, he formally abdicated the crown. The Mexican Congress, glad not to have to face another civil war, ratified the treaty.

  During his first term in office, Diaz developed a pragmatic approach to solve political conflicts. Although a political liberal who supported radical liberals in Oaxaca, he eschewed the liberal ideologues. He maintained control through generous patronage to political allies. Even though Diaz was an authoritarian ruler, he maintained the structure of elections. That established the façade of liberal democracy.

  Diaz secured United States government recognition of his regime, even though it came to power by a coup. Mexican Congressional approval and the later niceties of an election helped. Mexico also paid $300,000 to settle bandit raid claims by the United States. In 1884, the United States recognized the legitimacy of the Diaz government. As a show of goodwill, former United States President Ulysses S. Grant visited Mexico.

  Once secure in his power, Diaz took control of the electoral process. Friends and associates ran for offices and were elected as governors
and mayors throughout Mexico. The Federal Army generals were his devoted followers. The Army quickly suppressed any revolts. For the next twenty-six years, presidential election results announced his almost unanimous re-election.

  In 1910, Diaz allowed Francisco Madero, an aristocrat with democratic leanings to run against him. Despite gathering a considerable following, the announced results reelected Diaz, with only a few votes for Madero. Decrying the election fraud, Madero called for a revolt, which spread throughout Mexico. The Federal Army, weakened by corruption proved itself unable to contain the revolt. Following repeated defeats to the Army, Diaz signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez. He and his vice-president abdicated power and accepted exile in Spain.

  The abdication of the Diaz government presented a serious foreign policy issue for Roosevelt. His support of Diaz in 1909 resulted in anti-American riots at American owned businesses. Roosevelt ordered 25,000 troops deployed on the Mexican border, and 8,000 Marines deployed with United States Naval exercises in the Gulf of Mexico. The gunboat diplomacy worked. Recognizing the implied threat from the United States, the newly elected Mexican President Francisco Madero ordered a halt to the riots. In response, newly elected governors and mayors suppressed the riots.