The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History

by Peter Heather

  Aral Sea, 150

  Arbogast, army officer, 394

  Arcadiopolis, fall of, 310

  Arcadius, emperor, 214, 217, 222, 240, 387

  Arcadius, son of Theodosius II, 371

  archers, 155–7

  architecture, 439

  Ardaburius, general, 259–60

  Ardashir I, king of Persia, 60, 97

  Arderic, king of the Gepids, 354

  Areobindus, general, 290

  Arintheus, general, 290

  Ariovistus, king of the Suebi, 54

  aristocratic class, 94, 95, see also landowners

  Aristotle, philosopher, 19

  Arles: administrative capital, 281, 379; archbishops, 442; Burgundian plans, 417; council, 250; Roman victory, 285; Visigothic victory, 416

  Armenia: frontier, 386; Persian control (367–8), 73–4, 161; Roman forces, 161, 173, 387

  Arminius (Hermann the German), chieftain of Cherusci: death, 55; defeat of Varus, 46–7, 55, 451, 457; leadership, 54, 457; monument, 47, 52, 58; relationship with Rome, 48

  Armorica: Bagaudae revolt, 287; banditry, 449; independence, 245, 283

  army, Roman: barbarian troops, 119, 158, 185–6, 196, 222–3; building skills, 7; Carolingian comparison, 449; cost of, 64, 248, 297–8; discipline, 6; eagles, 6; food, 55; generals of barbarian origin, 215; lists, 246; losses, 181, 247, 434; in Noricum, 409; officers, 27–8, 29; organization, 62–3; political influence, 27–8; Radagaisus’ troops, 198, 206, 223; recruitment, 82–3, 118–19, 160, 196, 215, 447–8; reorganization, 214–15; share of spoils, 29; siege warfare, 7–8; size, 63–4, 182, 198, 247–8, 385, 387, 446–7; specialist units, 62–3; tactics, 180; training, 6, 7; weapons, 6–7; see also garrison troops

  Arnegisclus, magister militum per Thraciam, 309

  Arsacid dynasty, 59–60, 61

  Arvandus, praetorian prefect, 419

  Ascaricus, Frankish king, 68

  Asemus, town, 311

  Asia, province, 116

  Asian Vespers, 12

  Aspar, general, 259–60, 285–6, 388, 393

  Asterius, Roman officer, 265

  Asturica, sack, 381

  Asturis, destruction, 413

  Asturius, general, 345

  Atakam, Hunnic fugitive, 321, 326

  Athanaric, leader of Gothic Tervingi: agenda, 75, 76, 80; family background, 75, 77, 90; Hun attack on, 151–2, 153; leadership, 86, 90, 94, 145, 152, 166; meeting with Valens, 72–3, 74, 83, 96, 161; relationship with Rome, 72–3, 457; religion, 92, 96; strategy, 80

  Athaulf, Visigothic ruler: ambitions, 378, 379; death, 241; in Gaul, 238–40, 345, 435; in Italy, 224, 243; leadership, 238, 241, 242; marriage, 239–40, 249, 257, 292, 378; relationship with Jovinus, 237–8, 239, 241; relationship with Priscus Attalus, 239, 249, 384; relationship with Sarus, 227; son, 240; in Spain, 240–1

  Attalus, Priscus, senator, 226–7, 239, 248–9, 255, 384

  Attalus III, ruler of Pergamum, 12

  Attila, ruler of the Huns: appearance and character, 319–22, 334, 340; base, 202; campaigns (441–2), 301–2, 307, 310 (map), 351, 389, (447), 307, 308–12, 310 (map), (451), 336–9, 341, 342, 343, 366, 375, 408, (452), 339–42, 343, 366; court, 318–19; death, 157, 342, 353, 362, 365, 369, 388, 390, 409, 435; defeats, 339, 341; embassies to, 313–24, 333–4; empire, 331 (map), 351, 360–6; leadership, 325–6; meeting with pope Leo, 340–1; murder of brother, 308, 321, 325, 326; name, 329; Persian plans, 334–5, 336; portrait, 340; reputation, 300, 360, 365; Roman tribute to, 301, 304, 307–8, 327, 454; Scythian campaign, 362; sons, 353–4, 359, 361, 401; treaty with Constantinople (450), 336, 389; wives, 314, 318, 321, 342

  Augustine of Hippo, St: on Carthage, 279; City of God, 230–2; Confessions, 122; death, 267; education, 37, 133, 280; family background, 132–3; on grammarians, 122; letters, 267, 271; sermons, 229–30, 267

  Augustus (Octavian), emperor, 9, 23, 38, 125, 282

  Ausonius, Decimius Magnus, teacher of rhetoric, 36–7, 40–4

  Autun, school, 37

  Auvergne: struggle over, 419, 420; Visigothic control, 417

  Auxentius of Durostorum, 76, 78, 79

  Avaricum, siege, 12–13

  Avars, 150

  Avienus, ex-consul, 340

  Avienus, Gennadius, 395

  Avitus, Eparchius, emperor, 375–81, 382–4, 390, 415

  Axiopolis, fort, 172

  Baetica, province, 208, 241, 265, 268, 344, 345

  Bagaudae: in Gaul, 282–3, 287, 397; identity, 282–3; in Spain, 282, 344, 345; subdued by Aetius, 288, 374

  Baiae, spa resort, 41, 43, 137

  Balamber, Hunnic ruler, 356–7

  Balaton, lake, 355

  Balearic islands, 267, 382

  Balkhash, lake, 156

  barbarians: generals in Roman army, 215; inclusion into western empire, 381–2; Roman expectations of, 49, 80, 379–80; Roman order and, 67–72; troops in Roman army, 119, 158, 185–6, 196, 222–3

  Basil, bishop of Caesarea, 133

  Basiliscus, general, 401, 402, 405–6, 425, 427

  Basilius, Flavius Caecina Decius, 395

  Basilius, rebel leader, 345

  Bastarnae, 49, 154

  Batavis: defences, 411; destruction, 414; military base, 409, 411; raids on, 413

  Bauto, army officer, 394

  Baynes, N. H., 444

  Bede, historian, 346

  Belgica Secunda, province, 418

  Berber tribes, 100–1, 272, 275

  Beremund, son of Thorismund, 357

  Berichus, follower of Attila, 322, 325, 329

  Bigelis, Gothic leader, 330, 353, 368, 388

  Birlad-Valea Seaca, village, 88–9

  Bismarck, Otto von, 47, 52

  Black Sea: coast, 154, 171, 202; Gothic presence, 72, 98; Hunnic presence, 150, 151, 158, 204; migrations, 84–5, 145, 150, 199; region and impact of Huns, 152 (map); warfare, 145–6

  Bleda, brother of Attila: joint ruler of Huns, 300; murdered by brother, 308, 325–6; name, 329; Roman embassy to, 300, 326; Scythian campaign, 362; tribute to, 304, 327; war with Roman empire, 301, 302, 351, 389; wives, 313, 317, 321

  Bobbio, monastery, 233

  Boethius, senator, 373

  Boniface, general: in Africa, 265, 266, 268, 271; campaign against Vandals, 265, 266; charge of treachery, 268, 406; death, 262, 285; defeat of Aetius, 261–2, 286, 374; defeat of Felix, 261; defeated by Geiseric, 271; forces, 268; power struggle, 260–1, 285; relationship with Placidia, 258–9, 261, 265

  Book of Constitutions, 423–4

  Book of the Popes, 121

  Bordeaux: university, 36; Visigoths, 287, 379

  Bourges, Visigothic control, 416

  bows, 156–7

  Braga, sack, 381

  Bretons, 416, 418, 419, 425

  Britain: after Roman rule, 437, 438; Anglo- Saxon kings, 415; appeal to Rome, 347–8; defences, 411; Honorius’ policy, 245, 345; kingdoms, 437; landowners, 437; leadership, 346; raiders, 345–7; refugees from, 394; revolt (407), 209–10, 218–19; revolts, 244–5, 283, 449; Roman conquest, 9, 56; Roman forces, 275; Roman rule, 39–40, 437

  Bructeri, 54, 85

  Budesty, settlement, 87

  buildings, public, 115–16

  bureaucracy, 28, 116–18

  burials: Christian, 121; Danubian style, 331–2; Germanic, 88–90, 94, 364–5, 454; Graeco- Roman pagan, 121; grave goods, 88–90, 94, 98, 332, 364–5, 455; Hunnic royal, 203, 301; Sarmatian, 98

  Burgundian language, 420

  Burgundians: Aetius’ strategy against, 287, 299, 374; appearance, 196–7; Christianity, 442; forces, 198, 446; forces with Roman army, 338; in Gaul, 382, 394, 396, 417–18 (map), 424; invasion, 193 (map), 197, 198, 201, 204, 445; kingdom, 424, 426, 429, 435, 438; landowners, 438; laws, 423, 431; raids, 281, 287; relationship with Alamanni, 459; relationship with Huns, 361; relationship with Rome, 394; subdued, 288; support for Jovinus, 237; territories, 84, 85, 197, 283, 382, 416, 417–18, 421–2, 423–4; treaty with Constantine III, 211
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  Byzacena, province: administration, 275; importance to Roman empire, 272; land policy, 295, 438; lost revenue, 296, 298; peace treaty, 286, 296; rural settlement, 113; Vandal-Alan control, 292, 294, 295–6, 432, 438; Vandal-Alan invasion, 270;

  Byzantium, see Constantinople

  Caerleon, fort, 346

  Calama, city, 286

  Calminius, son of Eucherius, 420

  campus Mauriacus, battle, 338–9

  Candidianus, general, 260

  Candidus, historian, 399–400

  Cape Bon, 402, 403–4

  Cappadocian Fathers, 133

  Caracalla, emperor, 109

  Carmen de Providentia Dei, 235

  Carolingian state, 436–7, 449

  Carpathian mountains: agriculture, 154; geography, 193–4; Gothic presence, 72, 151; Hun advance, 205; Hunnic presence, 351, 355–6; Iron Gates, 170; migrations, 85, 204

  Carpi, 81, 159, 185

  Carrhae, city, 60

  Carthage: Augustine in, 267, 280; city, 279–80; defeat by Rome, 8, 12, 102; defences, 271; Geiseric’s advance, 271, 388; Geiseric’s capture, 288–9, 295, 344, 395, 402, 433, 438, 451; Geiseric’s control, 290, 292, 293; harbour, 15, 273, 276, 402; Punic wars, 8, 12, 16, 231; relationship with Rome, 272–3

  Carthaginiensis, province, 208, 209, 344, 345, 398

  Caspian Sea, 147, 150

  Cassiodorus, senator, author and administrator of Ostrogothic kings, 352, 353

  Castinus, commander, 258, 259, 261, 265–6

  Castra Martis, 195, 196, 198, 388

  Catalaunian fields, battle, 338–9

  Catuvoleus, king of Eburones, 3, 13

  Caucasia, 73

  Caucasus: Hunnic presence, 204, 286, 386–7, 433–4; Hunnic raid, 202; Valens’ concessions, 176

  cavalry, 62–3, 155, 179–80, 247

  Celestiacus, landowner, 294

  Celtic language, 189, 245, 407

  Celts, 6, 9, 53, 57, 228

  cemeteries, 121, 331–2, 364

  Censorius, count, 344

  Cernjachov culture, 199–200

  Charaton, king of the Huns, 324–5

  Charlemagne, emperor, 436

  Chatti, 54, 84, 85, 93

  Chersonesus, Roman defeats, 309, 312, 342

  Cherusci, 46, 48, 49, 55, 84, 85

  Childeric, leader of group of Salian Franks, 416, 418, 452

  China, 148–9, 303, 446

  Chionitae, 150

  Chnodomarius, over-king of Alamanni, 82, 83, 85, 90, 92, 458

  Christianity: architecture, 121; Arian, 267; bishops, 125, 126, 133; Catholic, 293, 438; Church hierarchy, 126, 441–3; Constantine’s conversion, 78, 119, 121; doctrine, 78–9, 126; education, 442; endowments, 121, 123; Germanic, 58; Gibbon’s view, 14, 119–20, 121, 122–3, 443; Gothic, 76–80, 162, 227, 267, 457; Nicene definition, 78–9; Pelagian, 345; persecutions, 75, 92, 96, 293; relationship with emperor, 123–5, 126–8, 441–3; values, 121–2

  Chrysaphius, eunuch, 322–3

  churches, 121

  Cicero, orator, 17, 20, 42, 252

  cities, Roman, 33–5, 38–9, 302–3

  citizenship, Roman, 108, 439

  Claudian, poet, 217

  Claudius, emperor, 9, 56, 275

  Clermont-Ferrand: Avitus’ estates, 375; siege, 416, 418–19, 422

  client kingdoms, 80–4, 97–8, 292, 451

  Clovis, king of Salian Franks, 452–3

  Codex Argenteus, 76, 78

  Codex Sangallensis, 283

  cohortales (bureaucratic functionaries), 133, 134

  coinage, 56, 64–5, 70, 71, 89, 456

  Colias, Gothic commander, 172

  Comagenis: defences, 411; military base, 411

  combs, 88–9

  comitatenses (mobile field forces), 28, 62, 63, 215, 246, 247

  comites (counts), 40, 43

  communications, 106–7, 170

  Constans, brother of Constantius, 83

  Constans, emperor, 130

  Constantia, fall of, 310

  Constantine I, emperor: arch, 15; conversion to Christianity, 78, 119, 121, 123, 127, 442; creation of counts, 40; foundation of Constantinople, 170, 385; gifts to churches, 121; military organization, 63; pacification of Rhine frontier, 81; powersharing, 24; religious authority, 125, 441; sons, 24, 130; treatment of captured kings, 68; treaty with Tervingi, 162; victory over Goths, 73, 75, 77, 82; victory over Licinius, 130, 262

  Constantine II, emperor, 130

  Constantine III, usurper: accession in Britain, 209; challenges to, 237; defeat and death, 237, 238, 256; in Gaul, 210–11, 221, 222, 225, 247, 264; head displayed, 254; sons, 225, 254; Stilicho’s assassination plan, 221; threat to Rome, 236, 243; treaties, 211

  Constantine VII Porphyryogenitus, emperor, 305–6, 319, 351, 372

  Constantinople: armada, 400–6, 412, 426–7; bishop of, 126; council (381), 78, 80; defences, 203–4, 343, 366, 388; earthquake, 309; foundation, 170; Gothic advance, 175, 182, 229; Haghia Sophia, 400, 427; hostages at, 75; Hunnic embassy, 314; Hunnic threat, 298, 388; imperial capital, 25, 26, 28, 29; infrastructure, 170–1; mob lynching, 211; Ottoman capture, 431; patriarchate, 126, 442–3; relationship with western empire, 385–9, 426; religion, 443–4; resistance to Valens, 176; senate, 31, 69, 72, 116, 186, 212, 312; Stilicho’s policy, 216, 219–20; tribute to Goths, 368, 388; tribute to Huns, 301, 304, 307–8, 312, 327, 366

  Constantinus, praetorian prefect, 309

  Constantius II, emperor: agreement with Limigantes, 159–61; appearance, 23; death, 121; paranoia, 131; reign, 24, 82; religion, 77–8, 79; shared sovereignty, 24; suppression of usurpers, 83; Themistius’ influence, 102; Zizais’ appeal to, 98

  Constantius, Flavius, emperor: army, 434; background, 281; career, 236–8, 239, 240–1, 243, 247–8, 454; death, 251, 255, 258, 263, 265, 281; marriage, 251, 255, 257; relationship with Goths, 378, 390; relationship with Huns, 303, 327, 343; rise to power, 238, 250, 255–6; rule, 252–3, 264, 265, 266

  Cornuti, 12

  corruption, 101–3, 439

  Corsica, 382

  Cotta, Lucius Aurunculeius, legate, 4–7, 13, 22, 38, 48, 55

  Crassus, Marcus Licinius, triumvir, 59

  Crimea, 12, 353

  Ctesiphon, city, 70

  curials, 111, 117, 118, 133, 440

  cursus publicus (public transport system), 105, 106, 125, 313, 394, 395

  Dacia: abandoned by Rome (275), 85; Gothic presence, 183, 214, 215, 220; Hunnic raid, 368; Stilicho’s demand, 219; Theodosius’ control, 187

  Dacia Ripensis, 196, 388

  Dacian language, 49

  Dacians, 199

  Dahn, Felix, 48

  Dalmatia, 225, 426, 428

  Danube, river: bridges, 73; Carpathian mountains, 193–4; Dacia, 85; ferrymen, 315–16; Germanic peoples, 49; Gothic presence, 72–4, 81–2, 84, 86, 146, 154, 202; Gothic refugees, 145, 151–3, 158–64, 169, 433, 436, 445; Gothic war, 73–4, 82; Hunnic attack, 298; Hunnic crossing (447), 308; Hunnic groups, 202; Hunnic resettlement, 360; Hunnic tombs, 203; migration across, 367–8; nomadic populations, 147–8; peace treaties, 72–3, 82, 162; Roman advance, 9; Roman communications, 73, 170; Roman defences, 28, 73, 81, 171, 199, 211; Roman frontier, 9, 26, 48, 58, 67, 71, 367; summit meeting (369), 72

  Danubian plain, 168, 170, 171, 172

  Darius I, king of Persia, 58, 59, 71

  denarii (coins), 64–5

  Dengizich, son of Attila: defeat and death, 359; invasion (467/8), 353, 356, 361, 363, 368; leadership, 354, 363

  Dibaltum, battle, 175

  Dill, Sir Samuel, 376

  Diocletian, emperor: financial reforms, 64, 110, 114, 386; military strength, 63, 386; Prices Edict, 65, 111; Tetrarchy, 25, 130, 131, 262

  diplomacy, 12, 173, 306

  Dniester, river, 145, 151

  Domitianus, praetorian prefect, 116

  Don, river, 84, 154, 195, 286

  Donatus, death of, 324–5

  Dory, Goths, 353

  Dulcitius, governo
r of Asia, 116

  Durostorum, fortress, 158, 172

  Dyrrhachium, city, 170

  Eburones, 3, 4, 7, 13, 22, 48

  Ecdicius, son of Avitus, 418–19

  Edeco, ambassador of Attila, king of the Sciri, 314–17, 323, 325, 329, 357–8

  Edobichus, general, 237

  education: bishops, 133; law, 133; literacy, 49, 56, 80, 441; schools, 37, 44; traditional Roman, 17–19, 20, 117, 440–1

  Egypt: army, 400; climate, 274; province, 104, 105; religion, 83; Roman annexation, 9; Roman defences, 387; Theophanes’ journey, 105

  Ejsbøl Mose, weapon sacrifice, 92, 93

  Elbe, river, 9, 48, 56, 67

  elites, 90–1, 117, 440, see also landowners

  Ellac, son of Attila, 354

  Elpidia, nurse to Placidia, 258

  emperors: authority and control, 108–10, 120–1, 130–1; divine status and Christianity, 123–5, 441–3; imperial bureaucracy, 28, 116–18; imperial court, 27, 252–3; modes of succession, 28–9; power-sharing, 24, 66, 130; power struggles, 262; taxation, 120–1; usurpers, 66

  Epirus, Gothic invasion, 214, 220, 221, 225

  Ermenaric, leader of Greuthungi, 151, 153

  Eslas, ambassador of Attila, 323–4

  Eucherius, defender of Auvergne, 420

  Eucherius, son of Stilicho, 222, 223, 254

  Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III, wife of Huneric, 292, 371, 378, 379, 395–6

  Eudoxia, Licinia, daughter of Theodosius II, wife of Valentinian III, 129, 371, 379, 396

  Eugenius, lover of Honoria, 335

  Eugenius, usurper, 212, 216, 217, 236, 254

  Eugippius, monk, 407, 413

  Eunapius, historian, 155, 192, 194, 223

  Euphrates, river: irrigation, 62; Persian frontier, 59; Roman frontier, 13, 26, 40, 44, 106

  Eupraxius, praetorian prefect, 253

  Eurasian steppe, see Great Eurasian Steppe

  Euric, king of the Visigoths, 415–17, 418–25, 429, 435–6

  Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, 125

  Eusebius, imperial official, 256

  Eutropius, chamberlain, 214

  Expositio Totius Mundi, 279

  Faviana: defences, 411; military base, 409, 412

  Feddersen Wierde, farming settlement, 86–7

  Felix, general, 258, 260–1, 285, 321, 374

  Felix, martyr, 122

  Ferreolus, Tonantius, praetorian prefect, 419

  feudalism, beginnings of, 94–6

  Fiesole, defeat of Radagaisus, 194, 205

  Finno-Ugrian languages, 148

  fireships, 403–4