The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History

by Peter Heather

  Maximinus, ambassador to Attila, 313–24, 327, 328, 333

  Maximus, philosopher, 252

  Maximus, usurper, 237

  Mazda, 58

  Mederichus, Alamannic hostage, 90

  Melania, senatorial heiress, 122, 126

  Melanthias, imperial villa, 177

  Merida, capture, 344

  Merobaudes, poet and soldier, 283–9, 291–3, 298, 338, 345, 377

  Merogaisus, Frankish king, 68

  Mesopotamia: Arsacid dynasty, 59, 61; Persian gains, 60, 73, 386; Roman forces, 28, 176, 387; Roman frontier, 13; Roman province, 60, 176; Sasanian dynasty, 61

  metalwork, 88

  Metz, fall of, 337

  migration: across Danube, 367–8; flight from Huns, 204–5; Germanic, 145; Gothic, 94, 145, 201; movement from Germania, 201–2; Radagaisus’ invasion, 197, 201; Rhine invasion, 197, 201; Roman policy towards migrants, 159–60

  Milan, city, 25, 28, 29, 280; siege, 340, 341, 342

  Mithradates VI Eupator Dionysus, king of Pontus, 12

  Moesia, Lower, province, 172, 175, 185

  Moesia, Upper, province, 183, 300

  Molino del Postero, 39

  Mongol language, 148

  Mongols, 446

  Morava valley, 168, 171

  Mosella, poem (Ausonius), 40–4

  Moselle, river, 22, 32, 35, 40–3, 56, 57

  Naissus: city, 168, 236, 315; siege and capture, 301–2, 303, 304, 307

  Namatianus, Rutilius Claudius, see Rutilius

  Naqs-I Rustam, temple inscription, 58–9

  Narbonne, Visigothic control, 392, 397

  Nedao, battle of the, 354, 356

  Nepos, Julius, emperor, 426, 427, 428, 429–30

  Nero, emperor, 159

  Nicaea, council (325), 78–9

  Nicomedia, city, 25

  Nicopolis ad Istrum, city, 189, 311, 343

  Nisibis, city, 60, 70

  nomadism, 147, 150, 326–7, 328

  Nomus, ambassador to Attila, 333–4

  Noricum: Alaric’s advance, 221; Gothic settlement, 225; kingdom, 407; life after Roman rule, 412–15; Radagaisus’ invasion, 194; rebellion, 285; refuge centres, 410–11; relationship with Rome, 407–8; Roman defences, 409–10, 411–12, 414; Roman province, 408; Severinus in, 407

  Notitia Dignitatum, 63, 246–8, 272–3, 298, 385, 387, 409, 411, 434

  Novae, legionary base, 170, 172

  Noviodunum, fortress, 72, 172

  Numerianus, emperor, 60

  Numidia, province: administration, 275, 292; importance to Roman empire, 272; land policy, 295–6, 438; peace treaties, 286, 295; rural settlement, 113; taxation, 295, 296, 298; Vandal-Alan control, 286, 292, 294, 382, 432; Vandal-Alan invasion, 270–2, 281

  Octavian, see Augustus

  Odessus, city, 171

  Odotheus, leader of Greuthungi, 154

  Odovacar, ‘king’ in Italy, 357, 367, 428–30, 445, 452

  Oescus, legionary base, 170, 360

  olives, 277–8

  Olybrius, Anicius, emperor, 396, 425

  Olympiodorus of Thebes, historian and diplomat: on Alaric, 226; on Constantius, 236, 252; embassy to Goths, 203, 313, 324–5; on Gothic lands, 242; on Honorius and Placidia, 258; on Hunnic kings, 157; journeys, 203, 324; on Placidia’s wedding, 239–40; as source, 192, 194, 206, 239, 260, 304–5; style, 192

  Olympius, politician: career, 223–4, 225, 253, 255; death, 237; plot against Stilicho, 222, 233; regime, 223–4, 225

  Onegesius, notable at court of Attila: house, 318; meeting with, 314; name, 329; Roman embassy strategy, 313, 316; Roman prisoner of, 361; subduing Akatziri, 325; wife, 321

  Onoulph, son of Edeco, 357

  Oppida culture, 56

  Optila, guards officer, 373–4

  Orestes, ambassador of Attila, general, 314–16, 323–4, 426, 427, 428

  Orientus (poet), 207

  Orléans, siege, 337, 338, 342

  Orosius, Spanish chronicler, 198, 208, 211, 212, 239

  Orsova, 193, 194, 196

  Osrhoene, province, 60

  Ostia, port, 15

  Ostrogoths: creation of, 330, 353, 452, 454; freeman class, 94–5; Italian kingdom, 95, 452; law code, 431; relationship with Noricans, 413; relationship with Roman empire, 454

  Padusia, wife of Felix, 258, 261, 321

  palatini (imperial bureaucracy), 28, 134, 296

  Palentia, sack, 381

  Palladius, bishop of Ratiaria, 76, 79

  Palladius, imperial bureaucrat, 100, 101, 103, 104, 254

  Palladius, son of Petronius Maximus, 378

  Pannonia: expulsion of Huns, 203; Goth advance, 408; Goths in, 224, 353, 355–6, 359, 362, 388; Hunnic power, 362, 388; Nedao battle, 354; Radagaisus’ invasion, 194; Roman forces, 177

  Pannonians, 195

  Panormus, siege, 290

  Papirius, Marcus, senator, 228

  Parisinus Latinus 8907, 76, 78

  Parthia, 59

  Passion of St Saba, 92–3, 96

  Patrick, St, 37

  Paul, brother of Orestes, 427, 428

  Paul, count, 416

  Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 122, 123, 126

  Paulinus of Pella, poet, 249

  Pavia, mutiny, 222–3

  Pax Romana, 134, 171, 173, 231, 439

  peasants, 111, 112, 115, 134–5, 444

  Pechenegs, 150

  Pentadius, bureaucrat, 290

  Persia: Achaemenid dynasty, 58, 59; Arsacid dynasty, 59–60, 61; Attila’s plans, 334–5, 336; conflict with Rome, 59–62, 65, 70–1, 141–2, 166, 173, 181, 189, 386; relationship with Huns, 387; relationship with Rome, 386–7; Sasanian dynasty, 60–2, 64, 67, 97, 110, 141, 333, 386, 447, 459; Shapur inscription, 58–9; territorial gains in 363, 61 (map); threat to Rome, 48, 65, 67, 97, 98, 131, 142, 161, 386, 447

  Petronius of Arles, 419

  Petronius Maximus, senator and usurper, 372–3, 375, 377, 378–9, 390, 395

  Petrosidius, Lucius, 6

  Peutinger Table, 272, 279

  Philip, emperor, 59, 63

  Philippopolis, city, 171; fall, 310

  Philippus, praetorian prefect, 116

  Photius, bibliophile and patriarch of Constantinople, 192, 206, 257, 25

  Picts, 345

  Pietroasa: fort, 91, 93; treasure, 88

  Placentia, battles, 384, 428

  Placidia, daughter of Valentinian III, 371–2, 379, 396

  Placidia, Galla, see Galla Placidia

  Pliny, natural historian, 19

  poetry, 441

  Poland: agriculture, 87; amber trade, 456–7; iron production, 87–8

  Polybius, historian, 443

  Pompey, soldier and statesman, 9, 275

  Portchester, fort, 346

  Portus, port, 272–3, 276

  pottery, 88, 113–14, 200, 278, 437

  Praetextatus, Vettius Agorius, 19

  principales (elite), 117

  Priscus, historian: on Aetius, 374; on Akatziri, 325, 360; on assassination plot, 253, 323, 333; on Attila, 319–20, 334, 340; on Attila’s court, 318–22, 329; embassy to Attila, 313–24; on fall of Hunnic empire, 351, 368; on Honoria, 335; on Hunnic campaigns, 361–2; on Hunnic fugitives, 321, 326; on Naissus siege, 301–2; on peace treaty with Huns, 312; on Roman- Hun meeting, 300–1; on Roman and Hunnic societies, 138–9; on Sciri, 359; as source, 305, 306, 307, 329, 351, 372, 403; on tribute, 368

  prisoners: civilian, 361, 362; Gallic, 12; Roman, 61, 76–7, 301, 341, 361

  Probus, Petronius, 254–5

  Proconsularis, province: administration, 275; confiscation of estates, 293–4; importance to Roman empire, 272; land policy, 295, 429, 438; lost revenue, 296, 298; peace treaty, 286; rural settlement, 113; Vandal- Alan control, 292, 293–4, 432; Vandal- Alan invasion, 270, 271

  Procopius, father of Anthemius, 392–3

  Procopius, historian, 208, 268, 400, 403, 405–6

  Procopius, uncle of Julian, 73, 74, 75

  Procopius, usurper, 393
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  professional class, 133

  Profuturus, general, 173–4

  Prosper of Aquitaine, poet, 207–8

  Przeworsk culture, 87, 88, 199–200

  Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II, wife of Marcian, 371

  Punic wars, 8, 12, 16, 273

  Quadi, 81, 195

  quaestor (legal officer), 43, 253

  Quintanis: defences, 411; raids on, 413

  Quintilian, lawyer, 42

  Radagaisus, Gothic king: defeat and death, 194, 204, 205, 216; followers, 194, 197–8, 201, 205–6, 223, 224, 352–3, 445, 451, 453; invasion of Italy, 194, 205, 218, 408, 433; origin of attack, 196

  Raetia, province, 177, 195, 206

  Ratiaria, fortress, 308, 310

  Ravenna: garrison, 388; imperial capital, 225, 226, 229, 237, 263, 284; Nepos’ departure, 426; Paul’s death, 428; siege, 226–7; Stilicho’s death, 223

  receptio (Roman treatment of immigrants), 159

  Rechila, king of the Suevi, 344

  religion: Mediterranean, 83; persecutions, 75, 92–3, 96, 293; promoted by emperors, 76; rise of Christianity, 14, 123–4; sack of Rome, 229; Zoroastrianism, 58; see also Augustine, Christianity, Severinus, Ulfilas

  Remigius, magister officiorum, 100, 101, 103, 104

  Renatus Frigiderus, historian, 206, 282

  rescript system, 108–9, 117

  Respendial, king of the Alans, 264

  Rhine: army revolt, 394; bridges, 7; coinage, 89; crossing (406), 194, 196, 197, 198, 201, 204, 206, 249; Germanic peoples, 48, 49, 98; population, 85, 114; raids, 113; Roman defences, 13, 199, 394, 416, 425; Roman frontier, 9, 26, 28, 42, 56–8, 66–7, 71–2, 81, 103, 281; settlements, 86, 90–1; summit meeting, 74

  Rhine invaders (406): Constantius’ campaigns against, 264–5; crossing, 201, 206; in Gaul, 207–8 (map); impact on Roman strategy, 221; languages, 263; mixed population group, 197; numbers, 198, 445, 446; origins, 194–5, 196, 204, 433; relationship between groups, 264–5; route, 206–8 (map), 210–11; in Spain, 208–9 (map)

  Rhodope, province, 175

  Rhodope mountains, 168, 175, 178

  Rhône, river, 7, 22

  Rhône valley, Burgundian presence, 382, 397

  Richomeres, general, 173

  Ricimer, patrician and general: forces, 427; marriage, 393; negotiations with Constantinople, 392–3; relationship with Avitus, 379, 384, 390; relationship with Libius Severus, 391, 392; relationship with Majorian, 390–1, 399; resources, 406; war with Anthemius, 435–6, 428

  Riothamus, king of the Bretons, 416

  rivers, 55–6

  Roman empire: army, see army; bureaucracy, 116–18; components of collapse, 443–9; corruption, 101–3; council, 253; creation, 8–9; crisis of 405–8, 193 (map); duration, 13–14; eastern front in 363, 61 (map); eastern survival, 431; economy, 111; emperors, see emperors; fall, 99; fourth century, 10–11 (map); frontiers, 9, 13, 28, 48, 55–8, 201–2, 387; legal system, 24; limits of government, 103–10, 448–9; polity, 128–40; size, 106–7, 448; western losses, 347–8 (map)

  Romanization, 439–40

  Romanness, 431–2; destruction of central, 432–7; local, 437–43

  Romanus, comes Africae, 100, 101, 103, 104

  Rome: Attila’s retreat, 340–1; basilicas, 227–8; bishop of, 126; citizenship, 108, 439; city, 15, 26; forum, 284; games, 21, 68, 184; population, 20–1; ports, 15; sack by Celts (390 BC), 228; sack by Goths (410), 191, 227–32, 267, 434; sack by Vandal-Alan coalition (455), 379, 382, 395; Salerian Gate, 227, 228; senate, 15–17, 24, 26–7, 28, 30–1, 74, 124–5, 128, 132, 139, 221, 224–5, 248; sieges by Goths, 224–5, 227, 228, 248

  Romulus, father-in-law of Orestes, 427

  Romulus ‘Augustulus’, emperor: accession, 427; deposition, ix, 146, 430, 431, 434, 445, 446; rule, 429

  Rua (Ruga), Hunnic king, 300, 326, 327, 362

  Rugi: conflict with Goths, 358; Hunnic control, 330; recruited by Rome, 427, 445; relationship with Norican communities, 413, 414, 415; territory, 355

  Runderberg, the, 91, 93

  Rusticius, prisoner of Huns, 341

  Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, master of offices and poet, 233–5, 244, 245, 250

  Saba, St, 92–3, 96

  Sabinus, Quintus Titurius, legate, 4, 5, 22, 55

  sacrificial goods, 92, 93–4

  St Bernard Pass, 7, 22

  Sallust, historian, 17, 102, 231

  Salona, port, 260

  Sangara, city, 70

  Saône, river, 22

  Saphrax, leader of Greuthungi, 151, 152, 179, 183, 185, 213

  Sardinia, Vandals expelled, 400

  Sardis, city, 118

  Sarmatians: armour, 156; burials, 98; cavalry, 155, 157; conflict with Goths, 358; conflict with migrant groups, 85; culture, 199; impact of migration, 450, 455; language, 49; relationship with Huns, 330, 355; relationship with Rome, 98; slaughtered in Colosseum, 68, 184; territory, 49, 81, 98, 147, 154, 195, 355, 358

  Sarus, general, 198, 221, 227

  Sasanian dynasty: rise, 60–2, 64, 67, 110, 141, 459; threat to Rome, 97, 110, 333, 386, 447

  Saxons: in Britain, 245, 345–6, 415; political units, 86, 94; Roman massacre of raiders, 67–8, 69, 81, 82; territory, 84

  Sciri: captives (409), 160; conflict with Goths, 358–9, 367, 368–9; followers of Uldin, 329; Hunnic control, 330; invasion under Uldin, 196, 198; kingdom destroyed, 367; leadership, 357–8, 367, 428; recruited into Roman army, 367, 427–8, 445; territory, 355

  Scots, 345

  Scottas, follower of Attila, 316–17, 325, 329

  Scupi, city, 168

  scutum (shield), 6

  Scythia: Aetius’ successes, 286; food supplies, 175; Goths in, 185; Huns in, 298, 362; province, 281; Roman garrisons, 172

  Scythians, 69, 147, 154, 155, 156

  Sebastianus, son-in-law of Boniface, 262, 281

  Segestes, leader of Cherusci, 55

  Senones, 12

  Serapio, king of Alamanni, 83, 90

  Serapis, Egyptian god, 83

  Serdica, city, 168, 171, 301, 315, 368

  Sergeric, brother of Sarus, 227, 241

  Seronatus, deputy prefect of Gaul, 420

  Severinus, saint, 407, 409, 410, 412, 413–14, 428

  Severus, Alexander, emperor, 66

  Severus, Lucius Septimius, emperor, 60, 109

  Seville, province, 39

  Shan-Yu, leader of Hsiung-Nu, 148, 149

  Shapur I, ruler of Persia, 58–9, 60, 62, 65, 161

  Shapur II, ruler of Persia, 70, 73–4

  Shipka pass, 168, 174, 177

  shipping, 63, 268, 276, 277, 398–9, 400–6

  Sicily: Geiseric’s control, 382; imperial army, 290, 292, 298, 303–4, 306; imperial expeditions, 399, 400; revenue from, 406; Vandal attacks, 290, 395

  Sidonius Apollinaris, poet and letter writer: on Anthemius, 393, 401; on Avitus, 377–8, 382–4; on Burgundians, 196–7, 420; career, 394, 418–19, 422–3, 435; on Goths, 422; on Hunnic invasion, 337; on Libius Severus, 391; literary style, 376; on Majorian, 397–8; relationship with Avitus, 375, 382; relationship with Majorian, 394–5; on Theoderic II, 380–1, 418; on Valentinian III, 382; on Vandals, 402; works, 375–7, 415

  siege warfare, 7–8, 65, 301–3, 343

  Siling Vandals: alliances, 206, 264–5, 452, 453, 454; language, 263; losses, 198, 241–2, 244; origins, 263; Rhine crossing (406), 194, 206; in Spain, 241, 264, 265

  Silk Road, 148, 150, 303

  Silvanus, banker, 336

  Silvanus, general, 215

  silver, 88

  Sinicy, smithies, 88

  Sirmium, city, 25, 28, 355

  Sitifensis, city, 286

  slaves: Alan society, 263; in Alaric’s army, 224; exchanged for food, 159; in Germanic societies, 94, 95; of Huns, 361; Theophanes’ journey, 106

  Snake Mountain, battle, 287–8

  Sorogsi, 362

  Sozomen, historian, 192

  Spain: Alans in, 209, 241–2, 264, 265–6, 288, 344, 4
34; division in 411, 209 (map), 264; inscriptions, 108; invasion (411), 208–9, 241, 246; Justinian’s campaigns, 431; landowners, 438; revolts, 344–5; Roman conquest, 39; Roman control, 288; Suevi in, 396; Vandals in, 209, 221, 241, 266, 288, 344, 434; Visigoths in, 417 (map), 431

  Sredna Gora, 168, 171

  Stilicho, general: African policy, 218; ambitions for eastern empire, 217–18; career, 216–17, 236; death, 223, 224, 254, 255, 453; defeat of Radagaisus, 205–6, 218; fall, 222–3, 248, 255; guardianship of Honorius, 216–17, 218; plot against, 222, 233, 237; regime, 205, 210, 215, 217, 223–4, 253, 257, 281; relationship with Alaric, 215–16, 218, 219–22, 223, 390; relationship with Constantinople, 217–18, 219, 222; relationship with Honorius, 218, 222, 448; response to British revolt, 218–19, 221; title, 429; unrest against his rule, 211; wife, 321

  Strasbourg, battle (357), ix, 82, 85, 92, 458

  Succi pass, 168, 173, 178, 181, 183, 315

  Suda, 399

  Sueridas, Gothic commander, 172

  Suevi: alliances, 264, 452; forces, 198; in Gaul, 208, 221, 434; language, 263; migrations, 197; origins, 195, 204, 263; relationship with Huns, 330; relationship with Visigoths, 416; Rhine crossing (406), 194, 201, 206, 433; in Spain, 209, 221, 241, 244, 264, 281, 288, 344, 381, 396, 417; territory, 264, 355, 358

  Suleiman Pasha, 174

  Syagrius, correspondent of Sidonius, 420, 421

  Sylla, Roman captive, 322

  Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius, senator and author: career, 22, 30, 40, 137, 217, 280; at court of Valentinian I, 33, 35, 36, 42, 45; education, 18, 36; embassy to Valentinian I, 22–3, 29, 44–5, 72; estates, 16, 135–6, 293; on gladiators, 68; houses, 137; journey to Trier, 22, 31–2, 105; on Latin, 18; literary style, 19; marriage, 136; organization of games, 21; on plebeians, 20–1; relationship with Ausonius, 36, 40–4; on Rhine frontier, 42; on senate, 17; studies, 138; wealth, 16, 135; works, 16, 19–20

  Syria: agriculture, 112–13; bandits, 134; Persian invasions, 65; Roman annexation, 9; Valens in, 166

  Tacitus, historian: on coins, 89; on Germanic leadership, 95; on Germanic wars, 54, 93, 455; on Marcomanni trade, 456; works, 84

  Taifali, 190

  Tangier, port, 269, 270

  Tarifa, port, 267, 269

  Tarraconensis, province, 344, 345

  Tarragona, capture, 417

  Tatulus, father of Orestes, 427

  Taurus, praetorian prefect, 116

  taxation: African grain tax, 276, 296; for armies, 65, 120–1, 447–8; attitudes to, 120, 140; Carolingian empire, 436–7; effect on agriculture, 114–15, 140; emergency, 65; fraudulent collectors, 134; Hunnic influence, 435; impact on landowners, 116, 296–7; imperial role, 24, 116, 120, 140, 440; levels of, 110; local influence, 116, 440; losses from invasions, 246, 295–8, 345; patron’s influence, 136–7; in post-Roman Italy, 429; as reason for decline and fall of Roman empire, 110; reasons for, 70, 120; redistributive, 436, 454; reductions and remissions, 246, 295–6; riot, 120; sales tax, 297; shipping concessions, 277; withdrawal of imperial grants, 296