Day of Empire

by Amy Chua

  43. Morgan, The Mongols, pp. 103-6; Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, pp. xxiii, 220-21, 224, 228-34.

  44. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, pp. 123, 127; Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, pp. 195, 205-6, 209, 223,230-31,234.

  45. Morgan, The Mongols, pp. 133-34, 157-60; Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, pp. 116-17, 134-36, 140-41, 146, 156-60; Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, pp. 24318, 250, 252-53.

  46. Morgan, The Mongols, pp. 132-35; Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, pp. 152-54; Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, pp. 243, 248-51.

  PART TWO: THE ENLIGHTENING OF TOLERANCE

  FIVE: THE “PURIFICATION OF MEDIEVAL SPAIN: INQUISITION, EXPULSION, AND THE PRICE OF INTOLERANCE

  Epigraph: The 1492 expulsion decree is translated by Henry Kamen and reproduced in his chapter “The Expulsion: Purpose and Consequence,” in Elie Kedourie, ed., Spain and the Jews: The Sephardi Experience 1492 and After (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), pp. 80-81.

  1. See J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964), pp. 5-7, 9.

  2. Elie Kedourie, “Introduction,” in Spain and the Jews, p. 8, David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 19, 21-23, 133.

  3. Angus MacKay, “The Jews in Spain During the Middle Ages,” in Spain and the Jews, pp. 33-34, 46-50; Kamen, “The Expulsion,” pp. 79-80; Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, pp. 130, 132-33, 140. On Spain's “pre-modern” brand of toleration, see Henry Kamen, “Inquisition, Toleration and Liberty in Eighteenth-Century Spain,” in Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, eds., Toleration in Enlightenment Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 250-52.

  4. Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, pp. 23, 25-26, 38-39.

  5. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716, pp. 9, 95; Kedourie, Spain and the Jews, pp. 8, 10, 33-35, 49, 61, 68-69; Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, pp. 27-29.

  6. MacKay, “The Jews in Spain During the Middle Ages,” pp. 35-36, 48; Jonathan Israel, “The Sephardim in the Netherlands,” in Spain and the Jews, pp. 189-90; Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, pp. 174-75.

  7. Henry Kamen, Spain's Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763 (London: Allen Lane, 2002), pp. 22, 181; Kamen, “The Expulsion,” pp. 75, 82, 85; Haim Beinart, “The Conversos and Their Fate,” in Spain and the Jews, pp. 106, 108, 114, 142.

  8. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716, pp. 1,15,19-23; Julius Klein, TheMesta: A Study in Spanish Economic History, 1273-1836 (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1920), p. 38; Immanuel Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century, vol. 1 of The Modern World-System (San Diego: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 192-93 and 193n.l36 (citations omitted); John Elliott, “The Decline of Spain,” Past & Present (Nov. 1961), pp. 52, 54-55, 69-70; Ruth Pike, “The Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New World,” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 22, no. 3 (1962), pp. 355, 357, 359.

  9. Kamen, Spain's Road to Empire, pp. 69-70, 88-89; John Lynch, “Spain After the Expulsion,” in Spain and the Jews, pp. 147-48, 151; Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 183,185,195.

  10. Kamen, “The Expulsion,” p. 84; Lynch, “Spain After the Expulsion,” pp. 140, 14415, 148-53; Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 194-96.

  11. Kedourie, Spain and the Jews, pp. 16, 149-52; James MacDonald, A Free Nation Deep in Debt (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2003), pp. 133-35; Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 186-87, 195, 204-5. On the expulsion of the Jesuits, see Bernard Moses, Spain's Declining Power in South America, 1730-1806 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1919), pp. 104-7.

  12. Max Boot, War Made New: Technology, Warfare, and the Course of History, 1500 to Today (New York: Gotham Books, 2006), pp. 30-45; MacDonald, A Free Nation Deep in Debt, pp. 132-34; Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 192-97.

  13. The nineteenth-century Spanish writer was Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, who is quoted in Lynch, “Spain After the Expulsion,” pp. 159-60.

  14. Kamen, “The Expulsion,” pp. 75, 84; Lynch, “Spain After the Expulsion,” p. 145.

  15. Lynch, “Spain After the Expulsion,” p. 140. On the general intolerance of seventeenth-century Europe, see Wiebe Bergsma, “Church, State, and People,” in Karel Davids and Jan Lucassen, eds., A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 204-13.

  16. Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 197-98.

  SIX: THE DUTCH WORLD EMPIRE: DIAMONDS, DAMASK, AND EVERY “MONGREL SECT IN CHRISTENDOM’

  Epigraphs: The Dutch author was Melchior Fokkens, quoted in Simon Schama's wonderful book The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), p. 300. The quote from Peter Mundy can be found in Richard Carnac Temple, ed., The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667, vol. 4 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1925), p. 68.

  1. On civet cats and the civet trade, see Jonathan I. Israel, Empires and Entrepots: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy and the Jews, 1585-1713 (London: Hambledon Press, 1990), pp. 357, 427, 435-36; William Jackson, “The Story of Civet,” Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. 271 (Dec. 2003), pp. 859-61; Brendan Koerner, “What Does Civet Cat Taste Like?,” Slate, Jan. 6, 2004, at slate.msn.com/id/2093538/.

  2. I. Schöffer, “Introduction,” in J.C.H. Blom, R. G. Fuks-Mansfeld, and I. Schöffer, eds., The History of the Jews in the Netherlands, Arnold J. Pomer-ans and Erica Pomerans, trans. (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2002), pp. 9-10; Mark T. Hooker, The History of Holland (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999), pp. 3, 14, 87-90.

  3. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, p. 44. On the watery, inauspicious origins of the Netherlands before its dramatic rise, see Jonathan I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 9-10; Hooker, The History of Holland, pp. 7-8. The “sand and mud dump” description is from Joh. Van Veen, Dredge, Drain, Reclaim (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1948), p. 11.

  4. B.M.J. Speet, “The Middle Ages,” in The History of the Jews in the Netherlands, p. 18; Israel, Empires and Entrepots, p. x; J. L. van Zanden, The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 19.

  5. Speet, “The Middle Ages,” pp. 21, 26-29.

  6. See Thomas Colley Grattan, Holland: The History of the Netherlands (New York: Peter Fenelon Collier, 1899), pp. 84-94; Hooker, The History of Holland, pp. 77-79; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 27-28, 34-35; Immanuel Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century, vol. 1 of The Modern World-System (San Diego: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 180-81. On the rise of Calvinism, the early Dutch Reformation, and growing conflict under Philip I, see Grattan, pp. 96-98; Israel, chaps. 5 and 6, especially pp. 101-5, 129, 14117, 193-94; Charles Wilson, The Dutch Republic and the Civilisation of the Seventeenth Century (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 8-9.

  7. The quote is from Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 155-56; see also pp. 140-54, 157, 160-61, 164, 167, 169, 177-80; Hooker, The History of Holland, pp. 83-87; P.J.A.N. Rietbergen and G.H.J. Seegers, A Short History of the Netherlands (Amersfoort, Netherlands: Bekking Publishers Amersfoort, 1992), pp. 67-76.

  8. Hooker, The History of Holland, pp. 83-87; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 184-86, 198-99, 202, 209, 213-14; Rietbergen and Seegers, A Short History of the Netherlands, pp. 67-76. The Hooft quote is from Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, p. 86. The text of the Oath of Abjuration can be found at Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library o
f Original Sources, vol. 5 (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), p. 190.

  9. Hooker, The History of Holland, pp. 88-89; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 208-10, 212-13, 218-30; Rietbergen and Seegers, A Short History of the Netherlands, p. 76.

  10. Israel, Empires and Entrepots, p. ix; Immanuel Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750, vol. 2 of The Modern World-System (San Diego: Academic Press, 1980), p. 38.

  11. Wiebe Bergsma, “Church, State, and People,” in Karel Davids and Jan Lucassen, eds., A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 196-97, 2021, 217, 223; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 392, 637-76; Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 61-62.

  12. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 587-89, 594; Daniel M. Swetschinski, “From the Middle Ages to the Golden Age, 1516-1621,” and Yosef Kaplan, “The Jews in the Republic Until About 1750: Religious, Cultural, and Social Life,” both in The History of the Jews in the Netherlands, pp. 68-71, 117, 126-27, 13710, 14214.

  13. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 266-67; see also Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 639-40. The quotes from Balzac and Mundy can be found in Bergsma, “Church, State, and People,” pp. 196, 203.

  14. Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 308, 319-20, 328, 374-75, 621, 657-58, 786, 910; Van Zanden, The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy, pp. 23-26, 35-36, 44-48, 52-53, 62; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 45, 64, 67. On the English Pilgrims, see Russell Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World (New York: Doubleday, 2004), p. 26.

  15. On the history of diamonds, see Harry Emanuel, Diamonds and Precious Stones, 2nd ed. (London: John Camden Hotten, 1867), pp. 53-55, 79-80, 84; Edward Jay Epstein, The Rise and Fall of Diamonds (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982), pp. 76-77, 103—4; Godehard Lenzen, The History of Diamond Production and the Diamond Trade (London: Barrie and Jenkins), pp. 32-34; Gedalia Yogev, Diamonds and Coral: Anglo-Dutch Jews and Eighteenth-Century Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978), pp. 154-55. On Antwerp in the sixteenth century, see Grattan, Holland, p. 94; Wallerstein, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, pp. 175-76.

  16. Israel, Empires and Entrepots, pp. 417-18, 422, 425-28, 432-35, 444-46; Kaplan, “The Jews in the Republic Until About 1750,” pp. 14619.

  17. See Israel, Empires and Entrepots, pp. 356, 417-22, 426, 433-34.

  18. C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), pp. xx-xxi, 2-3; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 22-23, 104, 116, 146-47, 193-94, 308-9, 311, 344-45, 349-50, 413; Wilson, The Dutch Republic, pp. 8-9.

  19. Karel Davids, “Shifts of Technological Leadership in Early Modern Europe,” in A Miracle Mirrored, chap. 11; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 16, 18, 116-17, 316, 348-50; Van Zanden, The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy, pp. 30-36; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 3912, 46 (quoting Daniel Defoe); Wilson, The Dutch Republic, pp. 30-31.

  20. Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 311-13, 316-18, 320-21, 326, 34516, 350; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 50-55.

  21. Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 319-24, 344-48, 380-82; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 48-51.

  22. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, pp. 114-15.

  23. Grattan, Holland, pp. 215-16; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 244-45, 262-71, 322-27, 399105, 934; Israel, Empires and Entrepots, pp. 199-204; Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World, pp. 24-33; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 64-65 & 65n.l69.

  24. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, p. xxi; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 326, 93410; Israel, Empires and Entrepots, pp. 419, 424-25, 430-33, 43710, 443-44; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 50-51.

  25. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, p. 27. The list of unloaded luxury goods is from Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 346-47.

  26. In this section I draw heavily on chaps. 3 and 5 of Simon Schama's The Embarrassment of Riches, especially pp. 295-304. On the Dutch Republic's relatively high standard of living, see pp. 322-23 of Schama's book and Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 351-53, 622-24, 630-33. William Temple's quote on Dutch parsimony can be found at Peter Spufford, “Access to Credit and Capital in the Commercial Centers of Europe,” in A Miracle Mirrored, p. 316.

  27. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 150-52, 174-75, 182-85, 189, 191,196,198,200.

  28. Ibid., pp. 182-85, 191-92, 194-95, 197.

  29. Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 627-30, 677; Van Zanden, The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy, pp. 50-52, 62-63; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 45, 64-67; Wilson, The Dutch Republic, p. 165-67.

  30. Wilson, The Dutch Republic, pp. 60-64, 118-24, 165-77. The quote from Descartes is from Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, p. 184.

  31. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, pp. xx-xxi; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 267-71, 796-97, 812-14, 825; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 64-65 & 65n.l69, 70; Jonathan Scott, “What the Dutch Taught Us: The Late Emergence of the Modern British State,” Times Literary Supplement, Mar. 16, 2001, p. 6.

  32. Grattan, Holland, pp. 81-85; Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 537, 773; Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 (New York: Sagamore Press, 1957), pp. 58-59, 81-82, 84-85; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, p. 46 & 46n.60 (citation omitted); Wilson, The Dutch Republic, p. 40.

  33. Davids, “Shifts of Technological Leadership in Early Modern Europe,” p. 341.

  34. See M.A.M. Franken, “The General Tendencies and Structural Aspects of the Foreign Policy and Diplomacy of the Dutch Republic in the Latter Half of the 17th Century,” Acta Historiae Neerlandica, vol. 3 (1968), pp. 4-5; Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, pp. 37-39, 64nn.l66, 168, and 169.

  35. Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 9, 802, 850-52.

  36. On the Glorious Revolution and the role played by Dutch Sephardic Jews, see Israel, The Dutch Republic, pp. 819, 841, 849-53; Israel, Empires and Entrepots, pp. 444-45; Jonathan I. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550-1750, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 127-30. Regarding the transfer of human and financial capital from Holland to Britain after 1688, see Spufford, “Access to Credit and Capital in the Commercial Centers of Europe,” pp. 328-29, and Karel Davids and Jan Lucassen, “Conclusion,” in A Miracle Mirrored, p. 450.

  SEVEN: TOLERANCE AND INTOLERANCE IN THE EAST: THE OTTOMAN, MING, AND MUGHAL EMPIRES

  1. C. E. Bosworth, “The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam,” in Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, eds., Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, vol. 1 (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1982), pp. 41, 49-50; Avigdor Levy, “Introduction,” in Avigdor Levy, ed., The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1994), pp. 15-16; Bruce Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 18-26; Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2002), pp. 5-31.

  2. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 10-12, 24-25; Aron Rodrigue, “The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire,” in Elie Kedourie, ed., Spain and the Jews: The Sephardi Experience: 1492 and After (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), p. 164; Annette B. Fromm, “Hispanic Culture in Exile: Sephardic Life in the Ottoman Balkans,” in Zion Zohar, ed., Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times (New York: New York University Press, 2005), p. 152; Stanford J. Shaw, “The Jewish Millet in the
Ottoman Empire,” available at www.yeniturkiye.com/display.asp?c=3012.

  3. Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 17-18, 29, 31-34, 38; John Freely, Inside the Seraglio: Private Lives of the Sultans in Istanbul (London: Viking, 1999), pp. 45-46 (Selim the Grim), 50-69 (Suley-man); see generally Metin Kunt and Christine Woodhead, eds., Siileyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World (London: Longman, 1995).

  4. Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 18, 23, 39.

  5. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 15-16, 32-34; Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 6, 22; Bosworth, “The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam,” pp. 5-9.

  6. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 15, 18; Metin Kunt, “Transformation of Zimmi into Askeri,” in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 55, 60-63.

  7. Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to Civilization (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 31; Albert Howe Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1913), p. 167; Paul M. Pitman III, ed., Turkey: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, 1987); Bosworth, “The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam,” pp. 11-12.

  8. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 21-28; Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 24, 26-27, 4217, 50-52; Robert Mantran, “Foreign Merchants and the Minorities in Istanbul in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 127, 132-34.

  9. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), pp. 5, 11-12; Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 3.

  10. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 11-12.