Pythagoras: His Life and Teaching, a Compendium of Classical Sources

by Wasserman, James

  Intervals and harmony of the spheres From Thomas Stanley, The History of Philosophy (slightly modified)

  CHAPTER 4

  OF THE PLANET VENUS

  Next to the Sun (says Pliny), there is a great star called Venus, alternately errant in names, emulating both the Sun and Moon.678 For presenting and rising before morning, he takes the name of Lucifer, as another Sun bringing on day. On the other side shining at Sunset, it is called Vesper, as suspending light and performing the office of the Moon. This is its nature, which Pythagoras the Samian first found out about the forty-second Olympiad [ca. 608 B.C.], which was of Rome the 147th year. In magnitude, Venus exceeds all the other stars, and is of so great splendor that this star only casts a shadow. Whence it has a diversity of names: some call it Juno; others, Isis; others, Mother of the gods. By the nature hereof, all things are generated upon Earth. For at rising, it scatters prolific dew, supplying not only the conceptions of Earth, but likewise stimulating all living creatures. It performs the revolution of the Zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the Sun more than forty-six parts, according to Timaeus. Thus Pliny.

  That there is a mistake in the time has been already shown; but the thing itself is confirmed by Laertius, who affirms Pythagoras first said that Vesper and Lucifer are the same star. Yet elsewhere Laertius adds that some ascribe this to Parmenides. But that it was a doctrine of the Pythagoreans, appears from this account given by Timaeus. The star Juno many call Venus and Lucifer. All person are not skillful in the rules of sacred Astronomy, and in the sciences of rising and setting. For the same star is sometimes Hesper when it follows the Sun in such manner that it is conspicuous to us when the Sun is set; and sometimes Eous when it goes before the Sun and rises before Sun-rising.

  Section II: Philosophy

  PHILOSOPHY, ITS NAME, DEFINITION, PARTS, METHOD

  The Pythagoreans, being adorned with these studies of Science, from thence ascended to perfect the Works of the World and the Principles of Nature.679

  Pythagoras first gave the name to Philosophy defining it as, “A longing and love of wisdom.”680 Wisdom is the science of truth in things that are. Things that are, he called immaterials, eternals, and sole agents, which are the incoporeals; the rest are equivocally called such by participation with these: viz. corporeals, materials, and corruptibles, which indeed are not.

  Now wisdom is the science of those things which are, but not of those which are equivocally. For corporeals are not capable of being taught, nor admit certain knowledge, being infinite and not comprehensible by science. And things which (as it were) are not—according to the difference of all things—neither can be rightly described by any definition. Of those whose nature is such as that they cannot be known, it is impossible to frame a science. Wherefore neither is it likely that there can be a love of a science which is not. But rather of that which is conversant about those things which properly are, and continue always the same, and are like themselves, and co-exist always with a true appellation—upon the knowledge of these follows that which is of equivocal things (though not sought after), as the science of particulars follows the science of universals. For as Archytas says, “They who know universals well, will plainly see what particulars are.”

  Wherefore things that are, are not of one kind only and simply, but of many and various kinds—intelligibles and incorporeals, whose appellation is , “things that are.” Corporeal things, subject to sense, are those which exist by participation of those that are. Concerning all these, he delivered most proper sciences, leaving nothing unexcused; and delivered also to men the common sciences—such as the demonstrative, the definitive, and the divisive—as is manifest from the commentaries of the Pythagoreans.

  Hereupon he defined philosophy as the knowledge of things that are; and the knowledge of things divine and human; as also the meditation of death,681 daily endeavoring to free the soul from the prison of the body; and the resemblance of God as far as is possible for man.682

  For the scope of philosophy is to free the mind, the divine part of the soul which is planted in us, and to set it at liberty. Without which liberty none can learn or perceive anything solid or true by the help or benefit of sense. For the mind, according to him, sees all things and hears all things. All things else are deaf and blind.683

  Thus it is that philosophy is of two kinds: practical and theoretical. The practical, according to the method of the Pythagoreans, precedes the theoretical. The reason is thus explained by Hierocles.

  Philosophy is the purification and perfection of human life—purification from material irrationality and the mortal body; perfection from the recovery of its own excellent life, reducing it to the divine resemblance. Virtue and truth are chiefly able to effect these by taking away excess of passions. This (rightly) induces the divine form.684

  First are laid down the instructions of practical virtue: for to begin with, we must compose the Irrationality which is in us, and then (so prepared) apply ourselves to the knowledge of the more divine things. For as it is not possible for the eye, being full of dirt and not cleansed, to look upon things very bright, so neither can the soul, not possessing virtue, gaze upon the beauty of Truth. For that which is not pure is not capable of touching that which is pure. Practical philosophy produces virtue; theoretical, truth. As in these Golden Verses of Pythagoras we find the practical philosophy called human virtue, but the theoretical celebrated as divine virtue when closing the instructions in civil virtue,

  These labor (says he) study these, and these affect;

  To divine Virtue, these thy steps direct.

  First therefore a man must be made good, then a god. The civil virtues render a man good, but the sciences conducing to the divine virtue divinize. But to those who ascend, the lesser things precede the greater. For which reason in the Pythagorean precepts, the rules of virtue are first delivered, teaching us to ascend from the greatest use of life to the divine resemblance.

  Three ways, say they, man may become better than himself. First by conversation with the gods. For it is necessary that he who addresses himself to them, at that time, sequester himself from all evil, assimilating himself as near as he can to God. Secondly, by well doing, for that is proper to God, and therein he imitates God. Thirdly, by death. For if the soul in this life, being a little separated from the body, becomes better and begins to divine in dreams, by visions, and the altered states of mind brought on by diseases, it will be much better when it shall be wholly separated from the body.685

  Hence he affirmed that the most considerable of all things human is to inform the soul concerning good and ill.686 He taught that men have perfect felicity687 when they have a good soul;688 or that the knowledge of the perfection of the virtues of the soul is the chief felicity. Further, that every man is appointed by God to know and to contemplate;689 that virtue is a harmony, and so is all good, even God himself;690 and that the end or chief good is to resemble God. Whence he expressly said, “Follow God, not visible to the eye, but intelligible to the understanding, by the harmony of the World.” 691 That the most excellent things given by the gods unto men are: to speak truth, and to benefit others [theoretical and practical virtue], and that each of these resembled the works of God. 692 To the latter Strabo alludes when commending those who said men imitate the gods most when they benefit others.693 The former is confirmed by Porphyry when he advised above all things to speak truth, for that only is able to make men like to the gods.694 For God himself in his body resembles light, in his soul truth, as he learned of the Persian Magi who term God Ahura Mazda. This is that (divinity) which Iamblichus695 reckons last in his recapitulation of the same with which the Golden Verses conclude, thus:

  Then stripped of flesh up to free Aether soar,

  A deathless God, divine, mortal no more.

  PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY: ITS PARTS; AND FIRST OF EDUCATION

  Practical philosophy seems to have been the invention of Pythagoras, for Aristotle affirms that he first undertook to discourse conc
erning virtue. That Socrates is generally esteemed the author thereof perhaps is only because, as Aristotle adds, coming after Pythagoras he discoursed better and more fully thereupon.

  To this part of philosophy alluded this sentence of Pythagoras: That the discourse of that Philosopher is vain by which no passion of a man is healed. For as there is no benefit of medicine if it expel not disease out of bodies, so neither is there of philosophy if it expel not ill out of the soul.696

  Virtues being of two kinds—private, which respect ourselves, and public, which have reference to others—Pythagoras seems to have comprehended the first under Education, the second under Politics. Laertius affirms he wrote three treatises: Education, Politics, Physic.697 The heads of Education, according to the general recapitulation of Iamblichus, seem to have been these: Institution, Silence, Abstinence from Flesh, Fortitude, Temperance, Sagacity.

  CHAPTER 1

  INSTITUTION, SILENCE, ABSTINENCE

  Concerning Instruction or Institution, there are these sentences and precepts of Pythagoras, preserved by Stobaeus and others.

  We ought to make choice of the best course of life; for custom will make it pleasant.698 Wealth is a weak anchor, glory a weaker: The body, magistracies, honors—all these are infirm and unable. What are then able anchors—wisdom, magnanimity, fortitude. These no tempest shakes. This is the law of God: that virtue only is solid; all else are but trifles.

  To take away bitterness from wormwood and liberty from speech are both alike.699

  Endeavor not to conceal thy faults with words but to amend them by reproof.700

  It is not so hard to offend as to not reprove an offending person.701

  As the sickness of the body if hid or praised, is not healed, so the soul cherished in its ways or concealed is not reformed.702

  Rejoice more in reprovers than in flatterers: fly from flatterers as enemies.703

  We ought either to be silent or to speak things that are better than silence.704

  It is better to throw a stone at random than an idle word.705

  Comprehend not few things in many words but many things in few words.706

  We must faithfully restore to him that entrusts us the deposit, not only of money, but of words.707

  Of opinion, the Pythagoreans said thus. Is the part of a man void of understanding to adhere to all men's opinions, especially to that which is maintained by the greatest number? For to conceive and judge aright is proper to few; it only belongs to the knowing who are not many. This power therefore extends not to many.708 On the other side, it is no less madness to condemn all conception and opinion. Such a person must be unlearned and unrectifiable. For it is necessary that he who is ignorant learn those things whereof he is ignorant; and that he who learns, addict and resign himself to his teacher. In a word, they said it is necessary that such young men as would be preserved, should addict themselves to the conceptions and opinions of their elders and such as lead a good life.

  Now in the whole course of human life, there are certain distinct ages which are not recklessly to be connected—for they are expelled by one another, unless a man be well and rightly ordered from his birth. It is requisite, therefore, that from the institution of a little child in goodness, temperance, and fortitude, a great part be transmitted to his youth when he arrives at that age. Likewise of his youth instituted in goodness, fortitude and temperance, a great part be transmitted to his manly estate.

  Herein the course ordinarily taken is ridiculous. For most think that children ought to be well-ordered, instructed in temperance, and to abstain from all things odious and undecent. But when they come to be youths, most leave them to their own management, to do what they please; whereas at that age, they are subject to both sorts of vices—of children and of men. To shun study and order, and to follow play and wantonness, the vice of childhood, is likewise most proper to youth again. Vehement desires, ambition, and the like, the affections of manhood, insinuate into youth. For which reason, this age requires care above all the rest. In fine, a man should never be so given over as to do whatsoever he pleases, but there should always be some overseer, a president over the rest, a legitimate sitting magistrate whom every citizen ought to obey. For a living creature, as soon as ever it is neglected, falls into ill and wickedness.

  They affirm, that they have often enquired and examined for what reason we give children food at set times and moderately. The ordinary answer is that order and moderation are good; their contraries, disorder and immoderateness, ill—as is manifest, inasmuch as to be a glutton or a drunkard is esteemed a great reproach. For if none of these were useful and beneficial to us when we arrive at man's estate, it were needless to accustom ourselves, while children, to such order. It is the same in other habits. We see it manifest also in all other kinds of living creatures, which are taught by man from the very beginning as whelps and the like, those things which they are required to practice when they are come to full growth. Thus Iamblichus. Of silence, abstinence, and the whole course of his Institution, we have formerly treated.

  CHAPTER 2

  FORTITUDE

  The greatest argument of the Pythagoreans for fortitude was that they fully persuaded themselves that of all human chances, nothing ought to happen unexpectedly to any, but that they should expect all things which were not within their own power. Precepts of Pythagoras, tending to this virtue, are these.709

  Do those things which you judge to be good, although after you have done them you shall be not be esteemed; for the vulgar is an ill judge of all good things. As you despise their praise, so despise their dispraise.710

  He forbade to forsake the protection and station of this life without the command of our Supreme Lord.711

  CHAPTER 3

  TEMPERANCE AND CONTINENCE

  He often gave the following apothegms, or aphorisms, to all his auditors whether many or few.

  We must avoid with our utmost endeavor, and amputate with fire and sword, and by all other means: from the body, sickness; from the soul, ignorance; from the belly, luxury; from a city, sedition; from a family, discord; from all things, excess.712

  It is better to live lying on the ground with a settled conscience than to have a golden bed and be troubled.713

  Temperance is the strength of the soul; for it is the light of the soul, clear from Passion.714

  To serve passions is more grievous than to serve tyrants.715

  It is impossible he can be free who serves passions and is governed by them.716

  No man is free who does not command himself.717

  The labor of continence precedes all excellent things.718

  To possess continence is the best strength and wealth.719

  It is better to die than to cloud the soul by intemperance.720

  He said that drunkenness is a little madness; or that it is the study of madness; or, as Laertius, that it is the canker of the flower of the mind.721

  The voice of the flesh is, no hunger, no thirst, no cold.722

  He admonished all men to shun ambition and vainglory, because these chiefly excite envy.723

  He discouraged all excess, saying that we ought not to exceed a due proportion in labor and food.724

  We must consider that there are three kinds of things which deserved to be pursued and acquired. The first is of those which are honorable and virtuous; the second those that assist life; the last, pleasures. Not the vulgar enchanting pleasure—for that he allowed not—but the solid and grave, free from blame.725 He said there are two kinds of pleasure. Whereof that which indulges to the belly and to lasciviousness by profuseness of wealth, he compared to the murderous songs of the Sirens. The other, which consists in things honest and just, as also in the necessaries of life is sweet, as well as the first, and withal it is not followed by repentance. Hither perhaps alludes Clemens, who says Pythagoras advised to esteem the Muses sweeter than Sirens; teaching that we should study learning not with delight; whereby he condemned the other delight of the mind, which is fallacious.
726

  Pythagoras said, upon seeing one that made himself fat by exercising and eating, “This man will not cease to make a stricter prison for himself.”727

  The Pythagoreans exhorted such as came into their society to shun pleasure as much as anything that ought to be avoided; for nothing so deceives us, and draws into sin, as this passion.728 In general, as it seems, they endeavored not to do anything which might tend to pleasure, this scope being for the most part indecent and hurtful; but that they should aim at what is good and decent, to do what they ought. In the next place, to discern what is convenient and beneficial requires a more than ordinary judgment.

  As to that which is called desire, they said thus: desire is an impulsion and appetite of the soul, either of some gluttonous habit, or derogation of some things belonging to sense, or the sensitive affection. This passion is various, and the most multiplicative of all that belong to man. Of human desires, many are acquired and framed by the persons themselves; wherefore this passion requires the greatest care and observation and corporeal exercises, more than ordinary. For the body, when its aliment is evacuated, to desire repletion is natural; and again, being replete, to desire evacuation is natural also. But to desire superfluous aliment, or superfluous and sumptuous raiment and lodging, or superfluous and various household stuff, and utensils, and cups, and servants, and herds of cattle, bred for diet—in a word, of all human passions, this is most such that it never is at a stay, but proceeds to infinite. Wherefore from our very childhood, care must be taken that we desire such things as are needful, and shun vain and superfluous desires, being undisturbed and clear from such appetites, and condemning those who deserve contempt, being fettered by their desires.