Pythagoras: His Life and Teaching, a Compendium of Classical Sources

by Wasserman, James

  It is of most concern to observe the vain, hurtful, superfluous desires of those who are transported by their power; there is nothing so absurd, whereto the souls of such persons—children, men, and women—are not transported. The most various is that of meats. Infinite is the multitude of fruits, infinite of roots, used by mankind. Besides this, all sorts of flesh, making it their business to find, of terrestrial, volatile, and aquatile creatures, wherewith to satisfy their taste; and all variety of dressing them, with the mixture of all kind of juices, whereby mankind is really prophetic and multiform as to the motion of the soul; for every several sort of meat is the cause of a peculiar constitution. Now men behold that these produce great alteration, as excess of wine to such a degree exhilarates; further, causes frenzy and disorder. But those things which discover not so much their force and efficacy, they are ignorant of; notwithstanding that whatsoever food we take is the cause of some peculiar constitution. Wherefore it is a great part of wisdom to know and understand, what kind and quantity of meat is requisite for nourishment. This science was first communicated by Apollo and Pan, afterwards by the Aesculapians.

  Concerning generation, he said thus. We ought principally to observe that which is called precocious†: for neither too forward plants nor animals before the due season when they are in their full strength.729 Youths therefore and virgins ought to be educated in labor and exercises, and actions conducing to fortitude, using food convenient thereto, and in a laborious, temperant and tolerant life. Of the things in human life, there are many in which to be late conversant is best; of this kind is coition. A youth ought so to be educated, as not to addict himself thereto before twenty years of age; and when arrived at those years, to use it seldom is best, if we esteem a good habit of body; for intemperance and good rarely meet in the same person.

  They recommended the rites and laws of the ancients in Greek cities: not to lie with mothers, or daughters, or sisters, nor in a temple, nor in public. For this is evil, and to procure all possible impediments thereof is very profitable.

  They were of opinion, that all unnatural ignominious generations ought to be taken away, and those only preserved which were according to nature, with temperance, and lawful.

  They conceived, that such as go about to beget children ought to have much providence of their future issue. The first and greatest providence is to prepare himself for that action by a temperate healthful life, not eating too much at unreasonable times, nor using such meats as deprave the habits of the body; but above all things, not to perform it when drunk. For they thought that by ill, and discordant, and disturbed temperament, the seed became adulterate. They also thought him a foolish, inconsiderate person who being desirous of children, and taking a wife to that end, should not with utmost study foresee by what means his issue might be most advantaged.

  They who love dogs, are very careful of their breed, as of which they shall breed, and when, and accordingly the whelps prove. The like do they who love birds. But though it be well known that they who breed any other kind of living creature use their utmost endeavor to procure a generous race, yet men have no respect to their own offspring, but beget them inconsiderately and bring them up negligently. This is the chief and most manifest cause that so many men are evil and wicked, the greatest part begetting their children like beasts without any consideration.

  Finally, Pythagoras as discoursing concerning the benefit of venereal pleasures, advised in the summertime to abstain wholly from coition; in the winter to use it but rarely. For it is generally hurtful, and the continual use thereof causes debility and is most pernicious.730 Laertius says, He advised, that in the winter and spring it should not be used at all, in summer and autumn but sparingly. For at all times it is pernicious and prejudicial to the health. And being asked, “At what time a man should use it,” he answered, “When he has a mind to be weaker.”

  CHAPTER 4

  SAGACITY AND WISDOM

  To Wisdom (the last general head of Education) belong these sentences of Pythagoras.

  The strength, wall, and armor of a wise man is wisdom.731

  Call to mind that most men acknowledge wisdom to be the greatest good, but few endeavor to possess this greatest good.

  The sacrifices of fools are the food of fire; their donations, the subsistence of sacrilegious persons.732

  A horse is not to be guided without a bridle, nor riches without wisdom.733

  He conceived the imposition of names on things to be the highest part of wisdom.734

  OF POLITICS: THE OTHER PART OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY

  The heads of Politics (according to Iamblichus) are these: common conversation, friendship, worship of the gods, piety to the dead, and lawmaking.735

  They hold Pythagoras to be the inventor of all political discipline. He used to say that amongst beings nothing is pure, but everything partakes of some other—as Earth of Fire, Fire of Water and Air. In like manner, honest partakes of dishonest, just of unjust, and the like. Hence it is that reason is carried away to either side. There are two motions: one of the body, the other of the mind; one irrational, the other elective. Commonwealths he compared to a Right Triangle, wherein one side consists of three parts, the base of five, the other side of the mean between them, of four. In the coincidence of these lines with one another, and their squares, we behold delineated the best form of a commonwealth, and of Justice.

  CHAPTER 1

  COMMON CONVERSATION

  To common conversation belong these maxims of Pythagoras.

  A just stranger is to be preferred, not only before a countryman, but before a kinsman.736

  Esteem as a great part of good education to be able to suffer the want of education in others.737

  Desire that they who converse with you should rather respect than fear you. For admiration accompanies respect; hatred, fear.738

  There being a justice in the mutual conversation of men, one towards another, of this also the Pythagoreans delivered this manner.739 There is in the common conversation of men one opportune, another importune. They differ in diversity of age, in dignity, in nearness of affinity, beneficence, and if there be anything like these in mutual differences. For there is a kind of conversation which appears to the younger towards the younger not to be importune; but towards the elder, it is importune. For no kind—neither of anger, nor of menacing, or boldness, but all such kind of importunity ought diligently to be avoided by the younger toward the elder. In like manner is the reason of dignity; for coming to a person endowed with true worth and virtue, it is neither decent nor opportune to speak much, or to commit any of the aforementioned things. Like these also are those which concern such as have obliged and deserved well of others.

  There is a various and multiple use of opportunity. For of those that are angry and incensed, some do it opportunely, others importunely. And again, of those who covet, and desire, and have appetite, it may be opportune for some to pursue those things, not for others. The same reason there is of other affections, actions, dispositions, conversations, intercessions, and discourses. But opportunity is of such a nature that it is capable of being taught, and undeceivable, and capable of act, and generally and simply having nothing of all those in it. But the consequences are of such a kind that they together—decent, and convenient, and the like—attend the nature of opportunity.

  They held that there is a primacy in everything, and that everywhere there is one thing which is best. In science, in experience, in generation, likewise in a family, a city, an army, and in all such like constitutions: but it is difficult to discern and understand the nature of the primacy in all the aforesaid things. For in sciences, it is the part of more than ordinary intelligence, by clear intuition, to discern and judge the parts of the thing which is the primacy of them. But there is a great difference, and almost of the whole and general a hazard, in not rightly taking the primacy. For in a word, nothing can afterwards be right if the true primacy be not known. The same manner and reason is in other kinds of primac
y. For neither can a family be well governed where there is not a true master and voluntary government; for it is requisite that both these be voluntary in the prefecture, as well he who is chief as those who are subject to him. As learning is then right when there is such conformity between the masters and the scholars that they will teach, these will learn; for if either he refractory, it cannot be rightly performed. In this manner he conceived it to be fit for inferiors to obey superiors, disciples their masters.

  CHAPTER 2

  FRIENDSHIP

  Pythagoras evidently demonstrated that there is a friendship of all unto all: of gods towards men by piety and religious worship; of doctrines to one another; of the soul to the body; of the rational part to the irrational by philosophy and its theory; of men towards one another; between countrymen by right observation of laws; between strangers by right physiology; of a man to his wife, or children, or brethren, and servants, by unperverted communion.740 In a word, of all towards all. Moreover of some irrational creatures by justice and natural affinity and communion; of the body, in itself mortal, a conciliation and combination of the contrary faculties, by health and wholesome diet, and temperance, in imitation of the good composure in the elements. In all these, of one and the same, according to comprehension of the name friendship, Pythagoras is acknowledged to be the inventer and lawgiver. And so admirable a friendship did he deliver to those who enquired of him, that unto this day (says Iamblichus), we say of those who are intimately joined together by friendship, they are of the Pythagoreans.

  We must add the Institution of Pythagoras herein, and the exhortations he used to his Disciples. They were advised to take away all contention and love of controversy out of true friendship; if possible out of all. But if that be not possible, at least out of that which is our own country, and generally that towards elders. Likewise out of that towards benefactors; for to become antagonists or contest with such when we are fallen into anger, or some other passion, is not consistent with the preservation of the amity we have with them. They said that in friendship there ought to be least scratches and cuts; and, if any happen, we should slay and subdue anger. It were best that both should do so, but chiefly the younger, and that those exercises which they called [“admonitions”],† ought to be made from the elder towards the younger with much commendation and benevolence. That there appear much care and tenderness in those who give the correction; for by this means, the correction shall be profitable. That we do not destroy friendship, neither in jest nor in earnest; for it is not easy to heal the friendship between men, if once a falsehood has incurred into the manners of those who call themselves friends.

  That we must not renounce friendship for adversity, or any other impotence which happens in life. That renunciation of friendship only is commendable which is made by reason of some great wickedness, and misdemeanor. But that we must not take away our friendship from them unless they become absolutely wicked. And before we renounce a friend, we must ingeniously pause to see if by challenging him he may be diverted from this ill habit and become rectified. We must fight, not in words, but actions; the fight is lawful and pious. Though difference of power be not a just ground for one man to fight with another, yet this is a just ground, even the most just that is possible.

  They said that to a friendship that will prove true, are required many definitions and rules; these must be well discerned, and not confused. Moreover, it ought to be accommodated to the disposition of others that no conversation be made negligently and vainly, but with respect and right order. Neither that any passion be excited vainly and wickedly and sinfully, such as concupiscence or anger. The same of the other passions and habits.

  Much more admirable are those things which they defined concerning the community of the divine good, and those concerning the unanimity of the mind, and those concerning the Divine Mind. For they mutually exhorted one another, that they should not tear asunder the god which is in them. Thus their study of friendship by words and actions had reference to some divine temperament, and to union with God, and to unity with the mind, and the divine soul. Thus Iamblichus.

  He conceived the extremity (or end) of friendship, to be the making one of two. Man ought to be one.741 This sentence (says Clemens) is mystic.742 He first said, [“friends share in common”], and [“friendship is equality”].†743

  CHAPTER 3

  WORSHIP OF THE GODS

  The principles of worshipping the gods proposed by Pythagoras and his followers, are these.744

  That all which they determine to be done, aim and tend to the acknowledgment of the deity. This is the principle, and the whole life of man consists in this: that he follow God. This is the ground of philosophy. For men do ridiculously who seek that which is good anywhere else than from the gods. They do as if a man in a country, governed by a king, should apply his service to some citizen of inferior magistry and neglect the supreme governor. In the same manner conceive they that such men do; for since there is a God, we must confess that good is in his power. Now all, to those whom they love and delight in, give good things; and to the contrary to these, their contraries. Therefore it is manifest, that such things are to be done in which God delights.

  Thus he defined particularly of all things. To believe of the divinity that it is; and that it is in such manner as to mankind; that it overlooks them not and neglects them not—such beliefs the Pythagoreans, taught by him, conceived to be profitable. For we have need of such a government, as we ought not in anything to contradict; such is that which proceeds from the divinity. For the divinity is such that it merits the dominion of all. Man they affirmed to be, rightly speaking, a creature reproachful and fickle as to his appetites, affections, and other passions. He therefore has need of such government and guidance, from which proceeds moderation and order. Now they conceived that everyone, being conscious of the fickleness of his own nature, should never be forgetful of sanctity and service towards the Divinity, but always have the Divinity in their mind; how it overlooks and observes human life.

  In fine, they say that Pythagoras was an imitator of the Orphean constitutions—worshipping the gods after the manner of Orpheus, placed in brazen images, not representing the forms of men but of the gods themselves, who comprehending and foreseeing all things, resemble in nature and form the whole. He declared their purifications and rites, which are called [“Rites of Fulfillment”],† having the most exact knowledge of them.

  Moreover they affirm, he made a composition of the divine philosophy and service: part whereof he had learned from the Orpheans; part from the Egyptian priests; some from the Chaldeans and Magi; some from the Eleusinian Rites; and those in Imber, and Samothracia, and Delos, and the Celtae, and Iberians.

  Amongst the Latins also is read the sacred discourse of Pythagoras. Not to all, but to such as are admitted to the doctrine of excellent things, and are not addicted to ought that is dishonest.

  It prescribes that men offer libation thrice; and Apollo gives oracles from a tripod, because number first consists in a triad.

  That we must sacrifice to Venus on the sixth day, because that is the first common number of the number of universal nature. Now after all ways, the thing divided in like manner assumes as well the power of those things which are taken away as of those which are left.

  That to Hercules we ought to sacrifice on the eighth day of the month, in respect of his being born at the end of seven months.

  It says also, that we ought to enter into a temple having a pure garment, and in which none has slept the sleep of slothfulness; black and russet, testifying purity in ratiocinations of equality and justice.

  It commanded, that if blood be shed unwillingly in a temple, that it be either taken up in a dish or scattered into the sea; for that is the first element, and most estimable of all creatures.

  It says likewise, that a woman ought not to be brought to bed in a temple, for it is religious; that the divinity of the soul should be annexed to the body in a temple.

  It command
ed that upon holy days we cut not our hair, nor pare our nails; intimating that the increase of our goods ought not to be preferred before the empire of the gods.

  That we must not kill a flea in the temple, because to the deity we ought not to offer any superfluous things, or vermin. But that the gods are to be worshipped with cedar, laurel, cypress, and myrtle, etc.

  He said piety and religion are chiefly conversant in our minds, at such time as we attend the divine rites.745

  He taught that the gods and heroes are not to be worshipped with equal honors.746 But that the gods must always be worshipped with applause (or silence at the celebration of their rites), we being white and pure. Heroes are to be worshipped only from noon. He advised that such as sacrifice should present themselves to the gods, not in rich, but in white and clean garments; and that not only the body be clear from all blemish, but that they bring also a pure mind.747 Purity is acquired by expiations, and bathings, and sprinklings; and by refraining from murder, and adultery, and all pollution; and by abstaining from the flesh of things that die of themselves, and from mullets, and melanures, and sheep, and oviparous creatures, and beans, and all other things which are commanded by those who have the care of sacred rites.

  He permitted not that any man should pray for himself, because none knows what is good for himself.748

  An Oath is just, and therefore Jupiter is surnamed'' [“of oaths”]†.749 He commanded his disciples to be very backward and cautious in taking an Oath; but that when they have taken it, they should be very forward and diligent to keep it. 750