Blackett's War
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4. Quoted in Jones, Wizard War, 183.
5. Bennett, Behind the Battle, 148; Smith, British Air Strategy, 64.
6. Kennett, History of Strategic Bombing, 133.
7. Bennett, Behind the Battle, 148, 170; Buckley, Air Power, 164.
8. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, 2:636.
9. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 1:539; van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 385, 387.
10. “Mid-May Situation of A/S AC Squadrons,” Folder 8: ASM Air Forces and Strengths, NARA, Tenth Fleet: ASW Series II; “Memorandum on AntiSubmarine Measures,” September 1941, Table III, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/6.
11. Van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 386–87.
12. Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:205–13; Clark, Tizard, 308.
13. “Quantitative Study of Total Effects of Air Raids (Hull and Birmingham Survey), Ministry of Home Security Research and Experiments Department, April 8, 1942,” reprinted in Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, Appendix 2; Clark, Tizard, 309; Crook, “Case Against Area Bombing,” 181; “Estimation of Bombing Effect,” H. T. Tizard, p. 2, Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/8.
14. Crowther and Whiddington, Science at War, 98; “Effect of Bombing Policy,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/7; “Recollections of Problems Studied,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 224.
15. Clark, Tizard, 309.
16. Ibid., 310, 313.
17. Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 1:332.
18. “Science and Government,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 124.
19. J. H. Godfrey to 1st Sea Lord, April 8, 1942, Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/6; “Effect of Bombing Policy,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/7.
20. “Recollections of Problems Studied,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 226–27.
21. Crook, “Case Against Area Bombing,” 174.
22. “Tizard and the Science of War,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 110.
23. Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/14.
24. “The Government and the War,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/6/1.
25. “Science and Government,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 123, 125–26.
26. “The Strategic Air War Against Germany, British Bombing Survey Unit,” p. 27, PRO, AIR 10/3866.
27. “Summary of War Work,” Blackett Papers, PB 8/10/2; Rosenhead, “Operational Research at the Crossroads,” 8–9; “Monograph on the Work of the Operational Research Section Coastal Command, Edited by C. H. Waddington, Sc. D.,” Staff of the Operational Research Section, Coastal Command (front matter), PRO, AIR 15/133.
28. Rosenhead, “Operational Research at the Crossroads,” 4–5, 23; T. E. Easterfield, in Sawyer et al., “Reminiscences of OR,” 127.
29. Waddington, OR in World War II, 77.
30. C. Portal, chief of Air Staff, to Prime Minister, July 5, 1942, PRO, ADM 1/12125; Prime Minister’s Personal Minute to First Lord and Secretary of State for Air, July 14, 1942, ibid.
31. Waddington, OR in World War II, 53–55, 62–63; Rosenhead, “Operational Research at the Crossroads,” 9; “Operational Research, Professor P. M. S. Blackett,” p. 3, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/2/7.
32. T. E. Easterfield, in Sawyer et al., “Reminiscences of OR,” 127, 129.
33. “Measures to Improve A/S Air Offensive,” ORC/CC/Report 174, E. J. Williams, February 12, 1942, PRO, AIR 15/731.
34. “Notes for Lecture on Science and the U-Boat War, D.N.O.R.—May 1943,” pp. 10–11, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/5; Price, Aircraft Versus Submarine, 51–54.
35. Price, Aircraft Versus Submarine, 54–60.
36. “Measures to Improve A/S Air Offensive,” ORC/CC/Report 174, February 12, 1942, E. J. Williams, PRO, AIR 15/731.
37. Waddington, OR in World War II, 231.
38. Ibid., 36.
39. Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 105, 106, 109.
40. Van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 407.
41. Padfield, Dönitz, 252–55.
42. Ibid., 256, 326.
43. Ibid., 248.
44. Price, Aircraft Versus Submarine, 88–89.
45. “Air Offensive Against U-boats in Transit,” October 11, 1942, E. J. Williams, PRO, AIR 15/732; “Notes for Lecture on Science and the U-Boat War, D.N.O.R.—May 1943,” pp. 11–12, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/5; Waddington, OR in World War II, 232–33.
46. McMahan, “German Navy’s Special Intelligence,” 68–69.
47. Whitehead, “Cobra and Other Bombes.”
48. “Captain Wenger Memoranda,” NARA, Historic Cryptographic Collection, NR 4419; Erskine, “Holden Agreement”; Budiansky, Battle of Wits, 237–39.
49. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, 2:548.
50. Mahon, “History of Hut Eight,” 62; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, 2:747.
51. Mahon, “History of Hut Eight,” 74.
52. Kahn, Seizing the Enigma, 223–26.
53. Erskine, “Naval Enigma: Heimisch and Triton,” 170; Goodman, McMahan, and Carpenter, “Battle of the Atlantic,” 269–70; Erskine, “Kriegsmarine Short Signal Systems,” 82.
54. “Notes for Lecture on Science and the U-Boat War, D.N.O.R.—May 1943,” pp. 13–14, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/5.
55. McMahan, “German Navy’s Special Intelligence,” 103–4; McMahan, “German Reactions,” 199–207.
56. Padfield, Dönitz, 274.
57. Schoenfeld, Stalking the U-boat, 20–25.
58. Ibid., 25–26; Budiansky, Air Power, 309.
59. “To: Dr. E. L. Bowles, From: Dr. P. M. Morse, Subject: General Impressions Gained During a Visit to England, January 4, 194[3],” p. 4, Box 31, Folder 7, Bowles Papers. This memorandum is misdated 1942.
60. “Diary of Dr. Philip M. Morse and Dr. William Shockley, Visit to London Commencing November 19, 1942,” pp. 1, 3, 5–9, 15, Box 39, Folder 5, Bowles Papers; Morse, In at the Beginnings, 191–92.
61. “General Impressions,” p. 8, Box 31, Folder 7, Bowles Papers.
62. “Memorandum to: Brig. Gen. H. M. McClelland, Director of Technical Services, Headquarters, Army Air Forces, Subject: Civilian Specialists in Combat Zones, September 3, 1942,” Box 29, Folder 6, Bowles Papers.
63. “Diary of Dr. Philip M. Morse,” pp. 17, 23, 28, 32, 38, Box 39, Folder 5, Bowles Papers; Morse, In at the Beginnings, 197; “Base Assignments,” Appendix E, ASWORG, Review of Activity, 62.
64. Schoenfeld, Stalking the U-boat, 32.
65. Morse, In at the Beginnings, 196.
10. A Very Scientific Victory
1. Llewellyn-Jones, “Case for Large Convoys,” 140, 142; Clark, Rise of the Boffins, 162.
2. “Recollections of Problems Studied,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 228.
3. “Statistical Analysis of Effect of Surface Escort of Convoys,” Report No. 21/43, p. 6, PRO, ADM 219/37 (also in Blackett Papers, PB 4/5/2); “Note on Variation of Losses with Size of Convoy,” Report No. 30/43, PRO, ADM 219/46.
4. “Recollections of Problems Studied,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 231.
5. “Progress of Analysis of the Value of Escort Vessels and Aircraft in the Anti-U-boat Campaign, Report by Professor Blackett, February 5, 1943,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/5/1.
6. “The Case for Large Convoys,” Report No. 2/43, Appendix I, PRO, ADM 219/19.
7. Ibid., pp. 1–2; Llewellyn-Jones, “Case for Large Convoys,” 149.
8. “Tizard and the Science of War,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 115.
9. “The Case for an Immediate, Even If Temporary Increase in the Size of Convoy, C.A.O.R. 5.3.43,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/5/1.
10. “Recollections of Problems Studied,” in Blackett, Studies of War, 231–34; Llewellyn-Jones, “Case for Large Convoys,” 144.
11. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 6:498, 562.
12. Fussell, Wartime, 132.
13. Stiles, Serenade, 141–42.
14. Konvitz, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 29–30.
15. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:296–97; Konvitz, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 40.
16. Konvitz
, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 27–28.
17. Ibid., 28–29.
18. “Perforability of German Submarine Pens, Located at Lorient and Elsewhere, by American and British Aerial Bombs, ORS Special Report No. 1, Headquarters VIII Bomber Command, December 8, 1942,” NARA, Records of Edward L. Bowles.
19. Konvitz, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 25, 31.
20. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:248–49.
21. Eaker, Oral History, p. 6.
22. Konvitz, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 33; Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:305–6.
23. Konvitz, “Bombs, Cities, Submarines,” 34–36, 43; Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:315–16.
24. “A.U.(43) 96, 29th March, 1943, The Battle of the Atlantic, Memorandum by the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Bomber Command,” and “Appendix A, Memorandum by A.O.C.-in-C., Bomber Command,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/11.
25. Price, Aircraft Versus Submarine, 109–10, 161.
26. Bennett, Behind the Battle, 154.
27. “Bombing of U-Boat Bases, Note by C.A.O.R.,” Prof. Blackett, [March 30, 1943?], Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/11.
28. “Appendix A, Memorandum by A.O.C.-in-C., Bomber Command,” Blackett Papers, PB 4/4/11.
29. Slessor, Central Blue, 524–25.
30. Llewellyn-Jones, “Case for Large Convoys,” 152.
31. “Atlantic Convoy Conference, Washington D.C., March 1 to March 12, 1943, Report of Conference,” p. 4, NARA, Records of Edward L. Bowles.
32. “Memorandum to: General Marshall, Lieut. General McNarney. Subject: Recommendations—Army Air Antisubmarine Effort, March 3, 1943,” pp. 1–2, Folder: Tenth Fleet—Organization, NARA, Tenth Fleet: Subject Files, Box 34; Meigs, Slide Rules and Submarines, 92.
33. “A.C.C.—3/1, Atlantic Convoy Conference, Air Support, Recommendation and Comment by SubCommittee on Coordination and Implementation, March 12, 1943,” NARA, Records of Edward L. Bowles.
34. “Memorandum to: The Secretary of War, Subject: Antisubmarine Aircraft, April 2, 1943,” Box 30, Folder 1, Bowles Papers.
35. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:387.
36. Schoenfeld, Stalking the U-boat, 172. An earlier sinking credited to the group was the result of a mistaken identification: on February 10 one of the Liberators attacked a U-boat believed to be U-519, which was shortly thereafter reported lost in the Bay of Biscay. In fact the boat that the aircraft attacked (and only slightly damaged) was U-752; the cause of U-519’s disappearance remains unknown, and was possibly accidental.
37. “Air Offensive Against the U-Boat, Memorandum by the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, April 19, 1943,” Folder: Tenth Fleet—Organization, NARA, Tenth Fleet: Subject Files, Box 34.
38. “Memorandum for the Secretary, April 6, 1943,” Box 32, Folder 1, Bowles Papers; Arthur L. Kip to Edward L. Bowles, June 4, 1943, ibid.
39. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 242, 252.
40. Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:408–9.
41. Morse, In at the Beginnings, 184; Meigs, Slide Rules and Submarines, 95.
42. ASWORG, Review of Activity, 29–31, 59–60; Morse, “George Elbert Kimball,” 136–37.
43. Erskine, “Kriegsmarine Short Signal Systems,” 84.
44. “On the Value of Squash in Pack Attacks,” Operational Intelligence Centre Special Intelligence Summary O.I.C./S.I. 1254, PRO, ADM 223/261; Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 118–19.
45. Padfield, Dönitz, 299.
46. Ibid., 299–300.
47. Erskine, “Admiralty and Cipher Machines,” 49.
48. NSA, Battle of the Atlantic, 3:44–56.
49. Morse, In at the Beginnings, 185–87.
50. Padfield, Dönitz, 301, 318; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, 2:567–68.
51. “Note on the Relation Between the Use of Aircraft to Give Air Cover to Convoys and in the Bay, P. M. S. Blackett, C.A.O.R., 22nd March 1943,” pp. 213–14, PRO, ADM 205/30.
52. “Notes for Lecture on Science and the U-Boat War, D.N.O.R.—May 1943,” pp. 14–15, Blackett Papers, PB 4/7/1/5.
53. “Brief History of the Bay Offensive, and Discussion of the Present Situation,” Report No. 45/43, E. J. Williams, October 9, 1943, PRO, ADM 219/61; “Operational Research in War,” Report No. 1/45, Leon Solomon, October 29, 1945, pp. 3–4, PRO, ADM 219/208.
54. Lovell, “Blackett in War and Peace,” 226; Craven and Cate, eds., Army Air Forces, 2:396.
55. Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 124, 131, 142.
56. Churchill, Second World War, 5:6–7.
57. Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 120, 123.
58. Budiansky, Battle of Wits, 295.
59. Parsons, Functions of “Secret Room.”
60. Erskine, “Ultra and U.S. Carrier Operations”; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, 2:549, 3(1):213–14.
61. Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 122; Sternhell and Thorndike, Antisubmarine Warfare, 84; “Navy Is Confident,” New York Times, April 24, 1944.
62. Blackett, “Evan James Williams,” 399.
11. Political Science
1. “Surrender of the U-Boat Fleet at Sea. (Short Title—Pledge One.),” April 19, 1943, PRO, AIR 15/449.
2. “From: H.Q.C.C., To: All Coastal Command Groups,” May 7, 1945, PRO, AIR 15/449; “Surrender of U/Boats 1945,” ibid.; Blair, Hitler’s U-Boat War, 2:815–19; van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 531.
3. Miller, War at Sea, 502; Padfield, Dönitz, 385.
4. Padfield, Dönitz, 392, 415.
5. Ibid., 428–34; Shirer, Rise and Fall, 1138.
6. Van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 530; Blair, Hitler’s U-Boat War, 2:705.
7. Tarrant, U-Boat Offensive, 151; van der Vat, Atlantic Campaign, 531.
8. Werrell, “Strategic Bombing,” 708.
9. Werskey, Visible College, 273–74.
10. “Note on the Scale of Wartime Honours and Awards to Government Scientists,” PRO, ADM 219/288.
11. Gannon, Black May, 243; Blackett, “Evan James Williams,” 404–5.
12. Rosenhead, “Operational Research at the Crossroads,” 9–11.
13. Roberston, “Conrad Hal Waddington,” 582; Rosenhead, “Operational Research at the Crossroads,” 22.
14. “Scientists’ Visit to Russia Banned,” The Times, June 15, 1945; Brown, J. D. Bernal, 266–67; Mott, Life in Science, 49.
15. Brown, J. D. Bernal, 485; Werskey, Visible College, 300–301, 318.
16. “Fundamental Research,” p. 114, Blackett Papers, PB 5/1/4/10/3; Lovell, “Blackett in War and Peace,” 228.
17. Nye, Blackett, 89; Blackett, Fear, War, and the Bomb, 143–44, 149–50.
18. Crook, “Case Against Area Bombing,” 186n34; Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, 145.
19. “An English Scientist Exposes Atomic Diplomacy,” Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, February 1949, pp. 43, 50; Nye, Blackett, 3; Ash, “Orwell’s List.”
20. “Cosmic Ray Conference Mexico 1951,” Blackett Papers, PB 1/10A.
21. Jones, Wizard War, 495–96, 514–16, 524.
22. Butler, “Recollections of Blackett,” 154; Nye, Blackett, 175; “Oral History Transcript—Dr. P. M. S. Blackett,” American Institute of Physics, www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4508.html.
23. Morse, In at the Beginnings, 291–99; Morse, “Trends in Operational Research,” 159.
24. Ormerod, “Father of Operational Research,” 191–92.
25. Crowther and Whiddington, Science at War, 199.
26. Waddington, OR in World War II, xv–xvi.
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