A History of Japanese Art

by Noritake Tsuda

  Such were the remarkable changes and the important characteristics of the Kamakura sculpture. Unkei was the best sculptor, representative of these new changes. But there was another famous sculptor called Kwaikei, Unkei’s great contemporary and rival. Indeed both were great masters, representing two schools of Kamakura sculpture in wood. Before either appeared, however, there lived a sculptor called Kōkei who was the pioneer master of the Kamakura sculpture.

  Kōkei was the father of the great sculptor, Unkei. Kōkei worked with his son and pupils at the Kōfuku-ji monastery during the time of its reparation and enlargement by the Fujiwara family in the Kamakura Period. To him was due the radical departure from the traditions which were still strong at the end of the Fujiwara Period and had hampered individuality for more than a century. He and his school laid stress on the accurate depiction of statuesque movement in place of the old repose which had become almost meaningless, and their work reflects half unconsciously the brush strokes of the painters which had lately become so full of vigor. The deep-cut and boldly outlined drapery and the use of rock crystals for the eyes appeared for the first time in this period.

  In the Nan-en-dō of the Kōfuku-ji monastery at Nara, we can find several examples produced by Kōkei who seriously studied the Tempyō sculpture at Nara where he could finds its masterpieces more abundant than he could if he were living now. He initiated his own style concordant with the new spirit of the age. Among others, the figures of the Four Guardian Kings of the Nan-en-dō were the best in which the new spirit of the age was most cleverly expressed. Yet, compared with that of Unkei and Kwaikei, his work laced the unity of all the important elements and failed to eliminate all the unnecessary elements.

  Unkei, the son of Kōkei, was a great sculptor, as has already been said. He succeeded in expressing the new spirit of the age, to which his father could not do full justice. He had great skill in rendering activity and courage. Even when his subject was placid, he tried to catch the intrinsic movement with a vital touch of his chisel as Michaelangelo had done with his brush and chisel. The two Niō or Deva Kings standing at the gate of Tōdai-ji in Nara show Unkei’s genius at his best. They are the largest statues of Niō in Japan, having a height of 26.9 ft. Their majestic countenances are well proportioned to their Herculean physiques; they are physically perfect and unequalled in the expression of terrifying fierceness. although these two statues are attributed to Unkei and Kwaikei, they most typically represent the type and technique of Unkei. (Fig. 75)

  Fig. 75. Niō, by Unkei (N.T.)

  Tōdai-ji, Nara

  The figure of Seshin, one of the patriarchs of the Hosso sect, is another master work by Unkei. (Fig. 76) It is now on view in the Nara Imperial Household Museum, but was originally placed in the Hokuen-dō of the Kōfuku-ji monastery as a side-attendant to Miroku-Bosatsu. In this figure we see the individual character of the priest wonderfully visualized by his genius. The bold, strong, yet rhythmic folds of drapery chiseled out of an innocent block of wood reveal a personality, grand not only in physique, but in spirit. Crystal is inserted in the eyes as an aid to the facial expression.

  Fig. 76. Seshin, by Unkei (N.T.)

  Nara Imperial Household Museum

  Jōkei, the son of Unkei, was also a great master; and he left us his signed statue of Yuima which is now on view in the Nara Imperial Household Museum.

  The great contemporary of Unkei was Kwaikei, a pupil of Kōkei, as has already been said. He showed the new spirit in his beautification of the old forms. He was most skilful in representing peaceful subjects, such as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, while Unkei showed his genius in rendering chivalrous subjects such as Niō, or other Devas. In the figure of Hachiman Bodhisattva (Fig. 77) of the Tōdai-ji monastery, Kwaikei left a type of pure beauty and refinement. This is the greatest work by him carved in the first year of Kennin (1201). It measures 87 centimeters in height and is colored on wood. The figure is preserved perfectly. Its form and expression are full of reality and there is nothing superhuman about it. It looks like an ordinary man with a calm and noble posture. Kwaikei left us other signed work, such as the statue of Shaka-muni in the Rakan-dō at Zeze, Ōmi province, the statue of Jizō in the Tōdai-ji monastery, and several others in local provinces.

  Fig. 77. Hachiman Bodhisattva, by Kwaikei (N.T.)

  Tōdai-ji, Nara

  At Kinomoto on the northeastern side of Lake Biwa is a Buddhist temple called Jōshin-ji where is enshrined a figure of Jizō with two attendant figures. The temple became famous for this triad of Jizō, which are made of wood. This figure of Jizō measures about 160 centimeters in height and has magnificent form and yet a most merciful expression. (Fig. 78) Inside the figure is an inscription dated the third year of Ninji (1242). The attendant figures, called Gushōjin, were produced at the same time as the main figure. We have reproduced one of the two attendants. (Fig. 79) In this we see the superb touch of the chisel, simple and strenuous as if animated with a spirit that has keen insight into all the conduct of men. As a whole, the triune figures are masterpieces representing the Kwaikei style of wooden sculpture developed in the Kamakura Period.

  Jizō, or “Compassionate Buddhist Helper,” is one of the most popular Bodhisattvas of mercy, and is called Ksitigarbha in Sanscrit. He is described in a sutra as a partial incarnation of the Buddha Amida; and he visits subterranean worlds where doomed spirits are suffering. He carries in his right hand a pilgrim's staff, to the top of which are attached jingling rings, which serve to arouse the spirits in agony to the presence of an all-embracing mercy. And in his left hand he holds a jewel symbolizing the inexhaustible riches of bliss and wisdom with which he liberally endows all the destitute. To the two attendants of Jizō, is entrusted the recording of all the good and wicked acts of men. The one on the left, takes notes of good acts, while the other on the right records evil acts. They are attendants to the King of Hell who is also described as a partial incarnation of the Buddha Amida, representing the solemn phase of his attributes. Therefore the King of Hell is also attended by Gushōjin.

  Fig. 78. Jizō (N.T.)

  Jōshin-ji, Ōmi

  Fig. 79. Gushōjin (N.T.)

  Jōshin-ji, Ōmi

  As an example of lay-figures of Kamakura sculpture, we have reproduced here a seated figure of Kiyomori, the head of the Taira family. It is owned by the Rokuhara Mitsu-ji and is now on view in the Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art. (Fig. 80) The figure is made of wood and measures about 91 centimeters in height. It represents him in advanced age, wearing a sacerdotal costume, entirely engrossed in deep thinking over the sutra which he is holding with both hands. The expres-sion of the face, the attitude of the hands, and the pose of the body all unite to bring out the individual vividness of his personality and show the excellent workmanship of the Kamakura sculpture.

  There was a unique tendency in the Kamakura sculpture, which had never before developed in the history of Japanese sculpture. It was the production of the nude figures of the Buddhist and Shinto gods. However, those figures were not left nude, but were dressed up like living men. People of this period were inclined to think of gods as human and thought it more faithful to change the dresses of gods. A unique example of a nude figure representing Benzaiten, the goddess of music, is owned by the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gō, the famous Shinto shrine at Kamakura. The figure is enrolled as a national treasure. It is made of wood and is coated with white gesso and slightly colored, showing the beauty of the flesh. She holds a musical instrument called Biwa in the left hand, and a plectrum in the right. On the foot is inscribed the following inscription:

  “This is for the first time dedicated to the Goddess in the 3rd year of Bun-ei (1266) by Nakahara-Ason Mitsu-uji and enshrined in the hall of dance and music.”

  Fig. 80. Kiyomori (N.T.)

  Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art

  The greatest merit of Kamakura sculpture is achieved in the medium of wood. However, an exception will be found in the colossal bronze statue of Amida at Kamakura, which is now famous th
roughout the world. (See p. 307-8)

  4. METAL WORK

  In this period, Kamakura, the seat of the Shogunate government, became a new center of minor arts as well as of other arts, although Kyoto still kept the honorable position of being another center of art that clung to the old traditions.

  The ideal of Zen Buddhism and the simplicity of taste began to be felt also in the expression of minor arts, and the greatest activity was shown in producing weapons which were most important in the lives of military men who rose to prominent positions; and the art of metal fittings for them greatly developed.

  The art of Japanese sword-making had made remarkable development already in the Archaic Period and many fine examples are found from the burial mounds as explained in the part dealing with archaic art.

  In the Kamakura Period, a great impetus to sword-making was given by the Emperor Gotoba (1184-1198) who summoned the twelve famous smiths to Kyoto, each to work for him one month in the year. These swordsmiths are called by the name “Ban-kaji.” Their blades were highly esteemed. In the reign of the Emperor Shijō (1232-1241), Mitsunaga and Nagamitsu appeared, and they are called the Osafune School. Then, in the reign of the Emperor Fushimi (1287-1297) Awataguchi Yoshimitsu and Rai Kunimitsu appeared in Kyoto and the work by Yoshimitsu was held in the highest esteem.

  Japanese experts divide sword blades into two classes, the Old Swords (Ko-tō) and the New Swords (Shin-tō). The swords produced in all ages before the Keichō Era, which begins with the year 1596, are called “Old Swords,” and those produced since that time are called “New Swords,” and the best work of Old Swords was produced largely in the Kamakura Period. The tempering of blades, the process of doubling, welding, and forging developed most highly and a fine finish was obtained without flaws or specks, as if symbolising the pure and lofty spirit of Kamakura warriors. However, the decoration of scabbards and other furniture was quite simple, but highly elegant, while elaborated sword fittings developed with Shin-tō swords.

  Fig. 81. General, wearing Grand Armor

  In the Atsuta-jingū is an excellent example of a Kamakura sword called Hyōgo Kusari-no-tachi, all complete with fittings and excellent decoration.

  The armor-making also made remarkable progress. Among the armor-makers the most noted is Masuda Izumo-no-Kami Ki-no Munesuke who flourished in the latter half of the twelfth century in Kyoto. He was granted a new name, Myōchin, by the Emperor Konoe. Afterwards, he removed to Kamakura, where he produced many pieces of armor, and founded a long line of Myōchins, lasting more than ten generations.

  Of the Japanese body armor the grand armor, called ō-yoroi, is the most elaborate and magnificent of all the armor ever produced in Japan. The finest was produced in the early Kamakura Period or a little earlier, that is, in the latter part of the twelfth century. The notable features of the grand armor are a curious winglike projection called fukigaeshi at each side of the helmet, a broad flat piece called sode at each shoulder, and a piece called waidate, which is laced separately to the body to protect the whole right side. It is very decorative, being lavished with gilded metal fittings, bright colorful lacing; and it is majestic in form. It looks magnificent when worn by a general, as will be seen in Fig. 81. Indeed, Japanese armor may be the most decorative body armor in the world.

  From the Kamakura Period there remain several specimens of excellent grand armor. The red-laced grand armor of the Mitake Shrine in Tokyo prefecture is famous and is beautifully preserved although the original condition is more or less lost through two repairs. This is traditionally said to have been used by Hatakeyama Shigetada (1164-1205). In the Kasuga Shrine at Nara there are two sets of red-laced grand armor which are likewise very important examples and illustrate elaborate and highly decorative workmanship. One of the two is profusely ornamented with exquisitee gilt appliqué representing the blossomed sprays of plum blossoms (Fig. 82); and the other suit is decorated with that of the gorgeous peony flower. Both are now on view in the Nara Imperial Household Museum. However, the best and greatest collection of armor produced in the late Fujiwara and Kamakura periods is exhibited in the treasury of the Ōyamatsumi-jinja at Ōmishima island. One of the helmets in the collection is shown in Fig. 83.

  Other body armors may be divided into three different kinds: hara-maki, dōmaru, and gusoku. The first two kinds had been produced already in the Heian Period, but gusoku was produced mostly in the Yedo Period. They are all generally inferior to the ō-yoroi or grand armor in quality, magnitude, and workmanship.

  The art of casting was also popular in this period and left us some examples of cast bronze mirrors, flower vases, and bronze or iron lanterns, which are highly artistic. Of these, cast bronze mirrors remain the most numerous and highly artistic, expressing the aesthetic taste of the age. In a Shinto shrine called Nitta-jinja, in the province of Satsuma, there is one of fine bronze mirrors, and the design on its back is composed of peony and two lively birds skimming along over the water under the flower. (Fig. 84) In the Tokyo Imperial Household Museum is another beautiful example, the design of which is composed of birds and a plum tree in bloom. (Fig. 85) In the Hokke-ji temple, Yamato, there is a pair of bronze vases with a relief ornament of peonies. In the Kurama-dera temple, Kyoto, is an excellent example of cast bronze lantern; and in the Kwanshin-ji temple, Kawachi province, is another iron lantern of highly artistic workmanship. (Fig. 86)

  Fig. 82. Grand Armor (N.T.)

  Nara Imperial Household Museum

  Fig. 83. Helmet (N.T.)

  Ōyamatsumi-jinja, Ōmishima

  5. POTTERY

  The pottery discovered in our prehistoric sites as well as in protohistoric burial mounds was already quite artistic in form and pattern. In the Shōso-in treasury at Nara are preserved some examples of the T‘ang pottery of China. From the scripture mounds (kyō-zuka) built in the Fujiwara Period are found some specimens of incense boxes called gōsu, a kind of white porcelain ware, representing Sung art of China. In the Kamakura Period, celadon or seiji porcelain, which could not be produced in Japan, was introduced from China, mostly by priests who had crossed over to that country. The objects brought home by them were flower vases and tea-bowls called temmoku, literally meaning eyes of heaven. They were highly artistic. Some examples of them still remain and a lot of fragments are found at various sites of Kamakura, showing that the seiji porcelain was then quite popular. But as native industry pottery did not on the whole make any remarkable progress when compared with the sister crafts. In China the pottery industry made noticeable progress after the T‘ang, and culminated in the Sung Dynasty. Japanese aristocrats of the Fujiwara Period used mostly imported pottery, so the native wares consisted mainly of domestic utensils.

  Fig. 84. Bronze Mirror (N.T.)

  Nitta-jinja, Satsuma

  Fig. 85. Bronze Mirror (N.T.)

  Tokyo Imperial Household Museum

  The pottery industry was first elevated to the dignity of art by Katō Shirozaemon Kagemasa of Owari, popularly called Tō-shirō. For this notable innovation, Japan is indebted to the inspiration of China; for Tōshirō went over to China about the beginning of the thirteenth century and after five years’ study of ceramic works there, came back to the village of Seto, near Nagoya, where he constructed a kiln. His products consisted chiefly of tea-services and were enameled with light brown and then mottled with black. The pieces produced by him are now called Ko-seto or “Old Seto.” The second Tōshirō produced yellow glaze, with which he experimented on tea-utensils and incense burners. His work is called Ki-seto or “Yellow Seto.” The third Tōshirō used the clay obtained from Mt. Kinkwa, in the province of Mino, and, following the glazing method of the first Tōshirō, manufactured numerous tea-pots and other wares. They are called Kinkwazan kiln. Finally appeared the fourth Tōshirō, early in the fourteenth century, who applied yellow glaze over light brown glazing, which is called hafu-gama, or the “gable kiln,” as the scanty glaze applied left the ground exposed, producing an appearance like the gable (hafu) of
a Japanese house.

  In the Tokyo Imperial Household Museum there is a tea-caddy by Tōshirō the First, which bears the title of Kokonoe.

  In the Fukagawa-jinja of Seto is the famous porcelain figure of a dog. (Fig. 87) It is traditionally said to have been made by Toshirō the First, and measures about 45 centimeters in height. The whole surface is applied with glaze which has a glossy buff color. It is beautifully formed with a strong touch; and it is no doubt a masterwork of the Kamakura Period. The left front leg is, however, broken, and a wooden one has been substituted.

  Fig. 86. Iron Lantern (N.T.)

  Kwanshin-ji, Kawach

  The city of Seto has been famous for its pottery work since the time of Tōshirō, and has produced various kinds of pottery such as Shino-yaki, Oribe-yaki and Ofuke-yaki. The city still holds its fame as one of the most renowned | centers for the production of pottery, and has in fact given rise to the general name for porcelain, “Setomono,” just as Chinese ware is universally known as “China” in English speaking countries.

  Fig. 87. Koma-inu, Pottery of a Dog (N.T.)

  Fukagawa-jinja, Seto

  6. LACQUER WARE

  In this period gold lacquer artists removed to Kamakura from Kyoto, and produced fine gold lacquers after the style of the preceding age. The workmanship was exquisite in the early part of this period, and there remain some excellent examples in temples and private collections.