A History of Japanese Art

by Noritake Tsuda

  A gold lacquer ink-stone box owned by the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, is one of the excellent specimens of lacquer wares, produced in the early Kamakura Period, and is now on view in the Kokuhō-kwan Museum at Kamakura. The entire surface of the box cover is decorated with chrysanthemums in mother-of-pearl inlaid work on a gold ground, called ikake-ji. It is an early example of pictorial design that has a highly decorative quality. (Fig. 88)

  A gold lacquer toilet box of Mishima-jinja at Mishima is also an excellent specimen of the Kamakura gold lacquer. The box with all its contents is ornamented with the same design, that is, with, plum trees, running streams, reeds, and wild geese. The design itself is very picturesque. The gold dust used for the purpose is of no small amount, and the design is somewhat relief in effect, which later developed into the raised gold lacquer.

  In the middle of the Kamakura Period a new lacquer carving called Kamakura-bori was invented under the influence of Chinese Sung lacquer. It had rather a rustic style combining a peculiar carving and lacquering. Rough designs were first carved in high relief and then lacquered; first with black, and next with red juice.

  Fig. 88. Gold lacquer Ink-stone Box (N.T.)

  Kokuhō-kwan Museum, Kamakura

  7. ARCHITECTURE

  With the reopening of the intercourse between China and Japan, Japanese architecture received a new acceleration of vitality. At the beginning of the Kamakura Period there were three different styles of architecture; one was the native style called wayō transmitted from the preceding period; the second, the Hindu style called tenjiku-yō, which was introduced from China in connection with the restoration work of the Tōdai-ji monastery at Nara; and the third one was the Chinese style called karayō which was introduced with Zen Buddhism. In the early part of the period, the architecture in native style (wayō) was somewhat revived. Its construction and technique were bold and full of power, indicating a certain amount of genuine growth of real vitality. Meanwhile the Hindu style was mingled with the new native style and lost its independence in a short time. The third style, the new Chinese style called kara-yō, had a most important position, not only in the Kamakura Period but also in the succeeding development of Japanese architecture. At the beginning this style developed independently with the erection of many temples of the Zen sect. But later on, the new karayō style modified by certain elements of native style, had a remarkable development, and left behind it an enduring style which greatly prospered in the succeeding ages. The greater part of the Kamakura buildings extant from this period are of the hybrid style of architecture.

  Besides the Buddhist architecture, we have only a few Shinto buildings from this period; but there remain no palace buildings, nor any private dwelling houses.

  The buildings belonging to the old sects, the Tendai, the Shingon, and other older sects, were built in native style or combined styles; and those of the new sects such as Jōdo-shū, Shin-shō, or Nichiren-shō, which developed on the soil of Japan were built in native style or in combined types of two or three different styles.

  Architecture in native style preserved its essentials in the earlier part of the Kamakura Period without being influenced by the new Chinese style. Some of the best examples of this are the Sanjusangen-dō of Kyoto and the stupa called Tahō-tō of Ishi-yama-dera in Ōmi.

  The distinguishing characteristics of the tenjiku-yō architecture were the inserted bracket elbows (sashi-hijiki), the saucer-shaped base of the daito, a certain irregularity in the arrangement of the bracket groups, and the peculiar form of their ends. Among the existing examples of the tenjiku-yō architecture, Nandai-mon, the Great South Gate of the Daibutsu at Nara, is the most famous typical structure in this style. The next fine examples of the tenjiku-yō architecture are the main temple and the Amida-dō of the Jōdo-ji monastery in the province of Harima.

  The karayō style of this period was derived from China under the Sung Dynasty and was adopted for the temples of the Zen sect. So it must not be confused with the early kara-yō of the Chinese Six Dynasties, which was introduced to Japan in the seventh century along with the first Buddhist propaganda. It differed from that in the shapes of the pillars, brackets, eaves, doors, and windows, and in the arrangement of tiles on the floor. The interiors of the new style were either plain or colored with the utmost simplicity, carving in low relief being generally the only form of decoration. The Shari-den of the Engaku-ji monastery at Kamakura is the only good specimen of this style existing from the Kamakura Period.

  The hybrid style between the native, Chinese, and Hindu style arose in about the middle of the fourteenth century and developed in the Muromachi Period following. The main hall of the Kwanshin-ji in Kawachi, the main hall of the Taima-dera in Yamato, and the drum house of the Tōshōdai-ji in Yamato are all good examples.

  The main hall of the Kwanshin-ji is a noteworthy building of the latter part of the Kamakura Period, and may be considered the best representative of what we call the hybrid style or setchū-yō. (Fig. 89) Its plan has seven column intervals on each side, surrounded by verandahs, and also a porch. The exceedingly low proportions, very slight inclination, and gracefully curved lines of the roofs are all features faithfully copied from the types of the Fujiwawa Period. The interior is divided by a heavy lattice partition into an inner sanctuary and an outer hall for worship, and in the inner section there is a holy fire altar for invocation. (Fig. 90) To the right and left of this altar are wooden screens with Buddhist figures. After all, the various styles are most cleverly harmonized to get a general effect of dignity and strength.

  Fig. 89. The Main Temple (N.T.)

  Kwanshin-ji, Kawach

  As regards the arrangement of the monastic buildings, the Zen sect of Buddhism had the most complicated plan on a large scale. They were erected on a rectangular ground, facing the south; and the main buildings stood on a straight line which ran from south to north at the middle of the ground. At the south extreme stood a general gate called Sō-mon, which was meant for the general public to pass under. Next come a rectangular pond with a stone bridge over it. Across the pond stood a two-storied gate called Sam-mon. Next come the Buddha Hall called Butsuden. Behind the Buddha Hall stood the Preaching Hall called Hatto; and then finally came residential quarters consisting of buildings called Hōjō and Kuri. All these main buildings looked solemn and magnificent ranged along the central straight line. On the east and the west side of the main line stood a belfry, a sutra depository a bath-house, the toilet house (Tōsu) and Zen-dō where the monks sat and meditated. In Kyoto and Kamakura were erected five great monasteries of the Zen sect with a complete arrangement of buildings; but none of them remain as originally built. However, the Myōshin-ji and Daitoku-ji monasteries of Kyoto have a plan similar to that described above, through which we may infer the general plan of the great Zen monasteries of the Kamakura Period.

  The arrangement of monastic buildings of the other Buddhist sects such as Jōdō-shū, Shin-shū and Nichiren-shū, is quite different from that of the Zen sect of Buddhism and much simpler and freer. The Shin-shū sect which was most purely Japanese, had two main buildings, the Founder's Hall (Soshi-dō) and the Amida Hall (Amida-dō) side by side in front, and the living houses of the priest at the rear. The Jōdo and the Nichiren monasteries had nearly the same plans. Among these monastic buildings, the Founder's Hall was the largest. This fact should not be overlooked, as all the religious activities were focussed upon the personality of the founder, and the faithful congregated at his hall. Such were the most striking characteristics of the Buddhist activities seen in the monastic buildings of the sects newly developed in the Kamakura Period.

  Fig. 90. The Interior of the Main Temple

  Kwanshin-ji, Kawachi

  CHAPTER 8

  Idealistic Art Under Zen Inspiration: The Muromachi Period 1334-1573 A.D.

  1. GENERAL SURVEY

  The Muromachi Period nearly corresponds to the Renaissance in Europe. It began nominally with the establishment of the Ashikaga Shogunat
e in Kyoto in 1338 and ended when the last Shogun Yoshiaki was expelled by Oda Nobunaga in 1573: thus it covered about 230 years.

  The last of the Hōjō dictators, Hōjō Takatoki, had committed suicide at Kamakura in the year 1333, and with the downfall of the Hōjō, the Shogunate of Kamakura broke down, and the real power of the state was restored to Kyoto in the name of the Emperor GoDaigo. The court nobles now thought that they could conduct themselves as the true masters of Japan, but their expectation was a dream: After only three years the Imperial power was again lost. But, as the warriors who had assisted them in the restoration of their former power could not get the lion’s share of the booty, one of them, Ashikaga Takauji, supported by a multitude of such dissatisfied soldiery, made himself the real master of the situation and was appointed Shogun.

  At the same time the Imperial Family was divided into two, and a civil war raged all over the provinces for fifty-six years, until the two parties were reconciled in the year 1392. In this way the whole of the Empire came under the hegemony of one military regime, and for about two centuries, the family of the Ashikaga continued at the head of the new Shogunate government at Kyoto.

  Thus, the greatest advantage in the removal of the Shogunate government from Kamakura to Kyoto was the achievement of political concentration of the Empire, by making it coincide with the center of civilization.

  The third Shogun, Yoshimitsu, succeeded in bringing about the reunion of the dual lines of the Imperial Family. Peace and order were restored and prosperity followed. But having nothing to check his arbitrary wishes, he gave himself up to extravagance and sensuous indulgence. He built or repaired large monasteries and edifices, such as the Tō-ji, Enryaku-ji, Kōfuku-ji, and Shōko-ku-ji. He also built his gorgeous residence, known by the name of “Palace of flowers,” and established there his Shogunate government. He erected a villa at Kitayama, which surpassed all others in splendor and costliness. His time was indeed the most nourishing in the Muromachi Period. Kyoto not only recovered its former prosperity, but even surpassed the preceding ages in architectural gardening and became the headquarters of the industrial arts.

  The succeeding Shoguns followed his example and did not care to improve their ways even when peace was disturbed by civil trouble. As a whole, the welfare of the people was not seriously considered by the Shoguns of Ashikaga, but art developed because of their luxury and taste.

  Among the Ashikaga Shoguns, the eighth Shogun, Yoshimasa, was known as the patron of art. He was absorbed in aesthetic pursuits even in the midst of war and financial stress. He built the elegant villa of Gin-kaku-ji (Silver Pavilion). He collected old pictures and ceramics regardless of cost and labor. He developed the tea-ceremony which had originated in the Zen sect of Buddhism to a refined form of social entertainment in which were included the arts of incense burning and flower arrangement. The prevalence of such refined amusements led to a marked progress in art.

  There remains a unique catalogue of art objects collected by Yoshimasa mostly from China. The catalogue is called Kundai-kwan Sayuchōki and was compiled by his attendant connoisseur called Nō-ami. In the catalogue are a commentary on tea-caddies and tea-bowls and brief descriptions of how to show pictures, how to judge the genuineness of objects, and how to arrange tea things on shelves. In the following generations, this catalogue was as highly esteemed as scripture among art connoisseurs and tea masters.

  Almost all the Shoguns of the Muromachi Period were closely associated with Zen priests and their lives were tinged with the doctrine of Zen. Of all the sects then existing, none attained a higher prosperity or exerted more influence upon art than the Zen sect, and that was chiefly because its doctrines were in accordance with the current frame of mind of the people.

  Zen, meaning meditation in supreme repose, had been introduced into China by Bodhi Dharma from India in 620 and in China it became amalgamated with the tranquil temper of Taoist quietism and absorbed the poetic genius of the Chinese. Zen is an intuitive method of spiritual training, the aim of which consists in attaining a lofty transcendence over worldly care. Zen aims at giving an intuitive assurance of having discovered in the innermost recess of one’s own soul an ultimate reality which transcends all individual differences and temporary mutations.

  In the investigation of the artistic development of this period, it will be noticed that the most remarkable change was made in the development of painting. The master painters of this age were mostly votaries of the Zen doctrine and therefore directed their attention toward producing works redolent of chastity and profound abstraction. In industrial art, which followed the lead of painting, the foremost art of the period, a similar simplicity is noticeable. But on the other hand, it should be remembered that there was also gorgeous architecture such as that of the Golden Pavilion.

  As a whole the art of the Muromachi Period bears an entirely different aspect from that of the preceding period. It was from the time of the Shogun Yoshimasa that because of its increased secular appeal religious art began to get a hold on the lives of individuals.

  2. PAINTING

  In this Muromachi Period, the most remarkable development was made in the painting. It is distinguished by two features, one being the use of ink instead of color, and the other rigour and sincerity, deeply tinged with subjective idealism.

  This newly developed style of painting is known by the name of suiboku-gwa which means literally water and black ink painting. The spiritual source of this development was in the inspiration of the Zen doctrine of Buddhism and its technique was greatly influenced by the paintings in black and white, produced by Chinese masters of the Sung and Yüan dynasties, which were imported in the previous period as well as in this period.

  The artists who studied this style of painting were mostly zen priests, or those interested in the doctrine of Zen. Some of them crossed over to China in pursuance of their study.

  The paintings produced by them were characterized by purity, simplicity, and directness, the elaborate coloring and the delicate curves of the Fujiwara and Kamakura periods being discarded for simple ink sketches.

  The subjects that attracted their interest were mostly figure compositions closely associated with nature. The Buddhist disciples called Rakan were generally represented in a group against a background of mountain scenery. Shaka-muni, the founder of Buddhism, was pictured in a quiet mountain scene or coming out of the mountain where he had practiced his long meditation to attain perfect enlightenment. Kanzan, a hermit sage, was generally represented as holding a blank roll partially unrolled, symbolizing the book of nature. Jittoku, another hermit sage, was always represented with Kanzan, holding a broom—the broom of insight—with which to brush away the dust of worry and trouble. Thus the priest-painters were keenly interested in figures set against the background of nature.

  In addition to such subjects, they were also extremely fond of landscape paintings, and of birds and flowers, separated from human figures. According to the ideal of Zen artists, beauty or the true life of things is always hidden within rather than expressed outwardly. Realizing the limited power of any elaborate depiction in revealing the infinite life and power of nature, they tried not to display everything that may be seen, but rather to suggest the secret of infinity.

  Therefore the work by great masters of this school was not the depiction of nature, but the expression of their emotion about it. To them there seemed to be neither high nor low, neither noble nor refined. In a single flower or a spray of bamboo, they tried to see the eternal life that permeates through man and nature alike; and they strove to catch it with simple, bold strokes of the brush and with little color.

  Among others, the works by Ri Ryū-min (Li Lung-mien) and by the Emperor Kisō (Hui ts’ung), of the North Sung Dynasty; those by Baen (Ma Yūan), Ka Kei (Hsia Kuei), Ryō Kai (Liang K’ai) and Mokkei (Mu-ch’i) of South Sung; and those by Chō Su-gō (Chao Tzu-ang) and Sen Shunkyo (Chien Shun-chü) of Yüan Dynasty, were popular with them.

  To improve their respecti
ve works, these Chinese masters were studied by such Japanese painters as Mincho, Josetsu, Shūbun, Sesshū, Sōtan, Jasoku, Motonobu and the three brothers of “Ami.”

  Fig. 91. Yakusan and Rikō (N.T.)

  Nanzen-ji, Kyoto

  An excellent example of the Chinese pictures which might have been studied by some of these Japanese painters is preserved in the Nanzen-ji monastery. This picture is an ink painting produced in the Southern Sung Dynasty of China. It represents two figures, a Zen philosopher Yakusan (Yao-shan) and a celebrated statesman Rikō (Li Ao) having a discussion on the philosophy of Zen. (Fig. 91) The philosopher is seated on a bamboo chair behind a massive stone table on which is placed a vase with a spray of plum tree, and his bony hand is raised to emphasize his opinion. In front of the table stands the statesman in an attitude of respectful consideration. The composition and line movement express wonderfully the directness and simplicity of the Zen idea.

  A rare example by Mokkei (Mu-ch’i) is owned by the Daitokuji monastery and placed on view in the Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art. It is a triptych representing Kwannon, monkeys, and a stork. In Fig. 92 the monkey of the triptych is reproduced. The picture breathes the atmosphere of religious repose and sublimity. Mokkei, the painter of this triptych, was a Zen monk who thoroughly understood nature and her ways of shaping mountains, streams, and other objects of nature. His understanding of nature pervades all his pictures. He never used gold nor any rich color, but simple ink, which was highly suggestive of the inner life of nature. A pair of landscape paintings representing autumn and winter scenery, attributed to the Chinese Emperor Kisō of the South Sung Dynasty and owned by the Konchi-in of the Nanzen-ji monastery, is also an excellent example that likewise had an instructive influence on Japanese painting of this period. Although it is not certain whether the picture was painted by the Emperor Kisō or not, it was surely painted by a master-hand of the South Sung Dynasty. The composition of these two landscapes is simple but broadly suggestive, leaving much to the imagination. A grand view of nature peeps out of the canvas. The picture is now preserved in the Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art.