The Chinese Typewriter
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in Chinese Civil War, 278
military campaign in warlord period, 254
retreat from Japanese forces, 220, 225
urban development campaign, 255
Gutenberg, Johannes, 81
Haddad, Salim, 62
Hall, Thomas, 46, 48, 325 attempt to develop Chinese typewriter, 131–132
Hammond Typewriter Company, 61, 185, 186
Han Zonghai, 233
Han dynasty, 94
hangul (Korean phonetic script), 3
hanja (Korean characters), 201–202, 210
Hannas, William, 70
Hanyang factory, 167
Hanyeping Steel Company, 167
Hanyu pinyin. See pinyin
hanzi. See characters, Chinese
Harbin Municipal Bureau of Public Security, 284
Harrison, Samuel A., 60–61
Harvard University, 244, 273
Havelock, Eric, 2, 69, 72, 186
Hayford, Charles, 142
heat maps, 308, 309f, 310f, 398n63
Hebei, 284
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 65–66, 72
hegemony, alphabetic, 9–12, 23, 26
Henan Provincial Government, 175
Hepburn, James Curtis, 376n28
Hernisz, Stanislas, 351n41
Herodotus, 186
heteropraxy and political orthodoxy, 292, 295
high modernism, 153
Hill, Robert Erwin, 62
Hillier, Walter, 372n65
History of the Art of Writing, The (Mason), 67
Holly, Carlos, 325
Hong, Y.C. (You Chung), 161, 164
Hongye Company, 219
Howl (Ginsberg), 71
Howland, Douglas, 209
Hu Shi, 138, 156–157, 326
Hu Zhixiang, 233
Huadong Machinery Factory, 171
Huang Xisheng, 250
Huanqiu Chinese Typewriter Manufacturing Company, 225–226
Huanqiu Typing Academy, 174–175, 368n34
Hull, Matthew, 339n23
human-machine interactionism (HCI), 260
Humphrey, Henry Noel, 67
Hung Shen, 142
Huntington Library, 161, 163
Hwangsong sinmun (periodical), 375n14
Hwa-yin Type-writing School, 176
hypermediation. See mediation
IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), 272, 315, 391n38
“ideographic” scripts, 66 Chinese rejected as, 67
Ilion, New York, 46
imitation (fangzhi), of Japanese typewriters by Chinese companies, 230–232, 233
immediacy of script, myth of, 316–317
imperialism, Japanese, 200, 201, 223, 229
imperialism, Western, 10, 11, 12
Imperial Printing Office (Wuying dian), 82, 348n10
Importance of Living, The (Lin Yutang), 244
imports of typewriters to China, 220–221, 221f, 232
Imprimerie Royale, 91, 348n16
Indo-European language family, 66
inflectional (agglutinative) languages, 96
“information crisis” in China, 10, 248–249, 250
information environment, early modern, 248
information infrastructure, Chinese, 19–21
“information overload
information technology, Chinese current-day robustness of, 14, 26
lack of archives on, 32
“technology transfer” and, 25
infrequently used characters in movable type, 82, 359n36
in “secondary usage character box,” 140, 197, 371n55
in telegraphy, 110
in typewriting, 191, 284
input, 237–243, 286, 318 in Chinese computing, 238–243, 315–320
cloud input (yun shuru), 319–320, 399n3
MingKwai and birth of, 243, 245–247, 280–281
input method editors (IMEs), 239–243, 318, 319, 388n2 Cangjie input, 243, 281
Sougou pinyin input, 240–241, 242f, 281
structure-based, 243
Interim Committee on the National Language (Japan), 204
International Olympic Committee, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11
International Telegraphic Union, 107, 114, 355n74
Iroha organizational system, 201, 205, 212
“Italian engineer” of MingKwai, 276, 392–393n54
Japan invasion of China (1937), 220, 228
invasion of northeast China (1931), 213, 218, 263
military occupation of Southeast Asia, 221
neologisms from, 86
See also imperialism, Japanese; typewriter, Japanese
Japanese Business Machines, Ltd., 198, 199
Japanese Imperial Army, 230
Japanese Typewriter Company, 232
Japanese Typist Association, 207
Jesus placement on Sheffield’s typewriter, 135–136
in typewriter art, 203
Jiang Yiqian, 250–252
Jiangsu Province Education Committee Summer Supplementary School
Jiaotong Engineering University, 137, 360n49
Jin Jian, 82–84, 134, 326, 348n10, 348n14, 348n16
Jin Shuqing, 216, 380n59
Jinggangshan, 294
Jinggangshan Newspaper Printing House, 292–294
Jingyi Typewriter Company, 233
Jiyang Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 227–228
Jones, Robert McKean, 265, 326 creation of Chinese Phonetic Typewriter, 182–183, 185–186, 187
and kana typewriter, 376n23
Lin Yutang and, 391n37
Kadry, Vassaf, 344n50
Kafka, Ben, 339n23
Kaifeng, 278, 291, 294
kana (Japanese phonetic writing), 3, 202, 203 hiragana, 3, 200, 202
in Japanese telegraph code, 201
katakana, 3, 200, 201, 203, 212
in typewriting, 59, 200, 202–204
See also typewriter, Japanese: kana-based
Kangxi Dictionary, 18, 77, 82–83, 91, 149, 256, 270, 348n11 criticisms of, 190, 249, 299
number of characters in, 85
Kangxi emperor, 82
kanji (Japanese characters), 3, 202 common usage and, 204
in typewriting, 199, 200, 205
See also typewriter, Japanese: kanji-based
kanjisphere, 210, 211, 212, 213
Kanto earthquake, 204
Karlgren, Bernhard, 67
Kataoka Kotarō, 205, 326
Kennedy, George, 141, 142, 143
keys, computer, 239
keys, typewriter analogous to piano keys, 179
“dead keys,” 48, 59, 63
definitive of typewriter’s essence, 41–45
on double-keyboard machine, 47
on imaginary Chinese typewriter, 35–37, 40–44, 157
lack of on Zhou Houkun machine, 145
as metaphor for life, 28
on MingKwai, 243, 245, 246f, 265, 271–272
Western typewriters without, 46
Khalil, Seyed, 344n52
Kittler, Friedrich, 28
Klaproth, Julius Heinrich, 102
Korean War, 279–280, 292, 297
Kurosawa Teijirō, 202, 375n17
Lampedusa, Giuseppe Tomasi di, 22
language reform in China, 12–16, 19–23, 138, 186 ethnographic notions in, 253, 262, 263
and reaction to typewriters, 156
See also abolition of Chinese characters; characters, Chinese: simplification of; retrieval of Chinese characters; Romanization of Chinese; vernacularization of Chinese
language reform in Japan and Korea, 201–202, 204
laser printer, 285
Lauer, Matt, 3, 9
L.C. Smith & Brothers Typewriters Inc., 51
leapfrogging, technological, 24, 375n7
Lee, Tuh-Yueh, 273
Legrand, Marcellin, 75, 91–103, 151, 154, 326, 351n38, 351n39, 351n41. See also divisible type
Legros, Lucien Alphonse, 184–185
Lewis, Jerry, 28
Lewis, Samuel, 46
lexicon, Chinese, size and expansion of, 77, 78f, 85, 86
Li Chih, 142–143
Li Fuguang, 94
Li Gui, 24–25
Li Xianyan, 213–214, 229
Li Youtang, 228
Li Zuhui, 174
lianchuanzi organization, 291, 292–294, 295, 298
Liangyou (periodical), 176
Liaoning Chinese Typing Institute, 176
Life (periodical), 193
Lin Gensheng, 305–306, 398n58
Lin Taiyi, 237, 272, 277f, 326, 392–393n54 demonstrates MingKwai, 273–276
Lin Yutang, 235, 237, 244–247, 277f, 326, 391n32, 392–393n54 early development of typewriter, 263–265, 391n36, 391–392n38
failure to mass-produce MingKwai, 278–281
Jones and, 391n37
legacy in transforming technology, 280–281, 316
and mechanical design of MingKwai, 246, 267
and taxonomic system for MingKwai, 267, 268–272
unveils and promotes MingKwai prototype, 272–276
work with character retrieval methods, 250, 252
See also typewriter models, Chinese: MingKwai
linguistic fitness, of Chinese, 65–72
Linotype, 360n54, 392n47
literacy, mass, 15, 19, 166 campaigns for, 260
in current-day China, 14
information technology and, 21
supposed lack of in China, 69
Literacy in Traditional Societies (Goody), 69
literary (Classical) Chinese, 20, 140, 211, 347n4
Logan, Robert, 69
London, 196, 198
Los Angeles Times, 276
Lu Xun, 13, 15, 29
Lu-Ho Rural Service Bureau, 143
Luoyang, 288
Macartney, George, 84
machine gun, compared to typewriter, 28, 29
machine translation, 106, 315
Madagascar, 104
Maejima Hisoka, 202
Magic Eye viewfinder (in MingKwai), 245, 246, 270
Maha Vajiravudh. See Rama VI, King
Maha Vajirunhis, Crown Prince, 49
Malaysia, 196, 197
Malling-Hansen, Rasmus, 42
Manchukuo, 195, 213–214, 222, 223, 224, 230
Manchu script, 224
Mao Zedong, 279, 298 and language reform, 142, 279
name on typewriter tray beds, 294, 295, 302–303, 307–308, 307f
poetry of, 285
speeches of, 285
Marshall, John, 391n38
Marshman, Joshua, 86
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN), 167
Mason, W.A., 67
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 138, 139, 145, 315, 391n38
“masses,” Chinese, 260–261, 292, 311 Chinese common usage and, 141, 142, 143
how characters are found by, 253, 260–261, 270
MingKwai advertised as usable by, 274
as projections of imagination, 262–263
and proletarian knowledge, 299
mass production of Chinese typewriters, 161, 164, 167–170
failure of Chinese phonetic typewriters to achieve, 187
failure of MingKwai to achieve, 277
failure of Sheffield typewriter to achieve, 137
of images, 37
McFarland, Edwin Hunter, 45–50, 56, 59, 326, 341n11, 342n27
McFarland, George, 49–50, 51, 54, 56, 326, 341n11, 341n13, 342n22, 342n27, 342n31
McFarland, Jane Hays, 45
McFarland, Samuel Gamble, 45, 341n10
McFarland Siamese Typewriter. See typewriter, Siamese
MC Hammer, 40, 43
mechanization, industrial, 177
mediation in Chinese computing, 239, 240
of Chinese in telegraph code, 112, 116–121, 118f, 119f, 356n76
and hypermediation in Chinese telegraph code, 117–121, 356n75
Meeting for the Improvement of the Typewriter Character Chart, 301–302, 303
memory practices in Chinese typing, 178, 180
and Japanese tray beds, 211
and natural-language tray beds, 311
and telegraph code books, 120
Mergenthaler Linotype, 10, 199, 272, 273, 277, 278–279, 392n47
metadata, 104
“Mexican” script, 66
Microsoft Word, 318, 320, 399n3
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), 317, 318–319
Ming dynasty, 12, 78, 82
Ming Kee Typewriter Company, 226
MingKwai Chinese Typewriter mechanism of, 245, 265–268
retrieval system used in, 267, 270, 279, 280
See also Lin Yutang; typewriter models, Chinese: MingKwai
minimal modification, 63, 123, 345n54
Ministry of Communications (China), 114
Ministry of Education (Chinese Republic), 142, 185
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France), 104
Minsheng Chinese Typewriter Company, 233
missionaries in China, 45, 64, 86, 102, 127, 341n10, 349n20 and hope of introducing new vocabulary, 87, 134–135, 349n19
See also Gamble, William; Sheffield, Devello Z.
Missipi (Edna Eagle Feather), 343n36
model workers, 288, 292, 298, 300, 304
modernity Chinese “incompatibility” with, 65–72, 172, 248
of Chinese women, 176
compatibility of languages with, 10, 11, 60, 66, 70
how to achieve in China, 13, 15, 20
information technology as test of, 16
Japanese, premised on cutting ties with China, 203
Japanese and Korean exclusion from, 210
modernity, Chinese technolinguistic between mimicry and independence, 165
character organization systems hinder, 249
intensity of engagement in, 26
methodological issues, 29–32
modernization initiatives in Siam, 45, 48
Monarch Typewriter Company, 344n52
Mongolia, 56
Mongolian script, 224
monoculture, technolinguistic, 44, 56, 58, 140
Monotype, 139, 360n54
Morse, Samuel, 106, 326
Morse code, 25, 113f, 117 authorized symbols in, 107
Chinese and, 108, 110, 112, 115–116
Continental, 107, 354n66
as inherently English-centered, 106–107, 352n48
See also telegraph code of 1871, Chinese
movable type, 8, 18, 74, 96, 169, 281, 349n20, 359n36 and common usage in Chinese printing, 84–88
compared to hot metal printing, 360n54
invention of in China, 81
and “Oriental” type design by Westerners, 90–94
resolving “incompatibility” of Chinese with, 75, 81–84, 92, 106, 347n4
See also divisible type
Mow, Pang-Tsu, 272
Mr. Hui’s Chinese-English Typing Institute, 174
“Mr. Tsiang” and “Mr. Cü” (assistants to William Gamble), 76
multiple-character sequences, 241, 290, 291, 294, 295–296, 311
Musée de la Machine à Écrire, 59
Museo della Macchina da Scrivere, 59
Museum of the History of Science (Oxford), 320
My Country and My People (Lin Yutang), 244
Nagasaki, 110, 230
Nanbu Yoshikazu, 376n28
Nanjing, 159, 220, 254–255
Nanjing, Treaty of, 127, 357n14
Nanjing Normal College, 159
Nanyang College, 137, 360n49
National Conference of Youth Activists in Social Construction, 298
Nationalist Party. See Guomindang
National Language Monthly, 186
National Ping-Pong Association (China), 215
National University of Commerce, 215
Nation’s Business, 183
natural-language
arrangement, 286–311, 289f, 396n35, 398n62 attempts to centralize, 301–303, 311
in Chinese typewriters, 286–288, 295–311
failure to adopt in Republican era, 296–297, 298
individual styles of, 306, 313f, 398n58
limited uses of, 295, 297, 297f
spread of in Communist era, 297–300, 308–311, 399n66
strategies for setting up, 305–306, 311, 312f
in typesetting, 291–295
NBC, 6
Needham, Joseph, 346n77
New China Press, 291, 295
Newcomb, Henry C., 126
New Culture Movement, 156
newspaper industry, Japanese, 201, 204, 375n7
New Typing Method, 298
New York Times, 143, 154, 210, 276
New York University (NYU), 147, 148, 154, 157
New York World Tribune, 276
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 42
Ningbo, 74, 75
Nipon o daï itsi ran (Annales des empereurs du Japon), 102, 351n39
Nippon Typewriter Company, 207, 223, 226, 228 introduction of Wanneng model, 223–224
North China Language School, 142
North China Military Region Headquarters, 297
Notizie Olivetti, 59
“numbered languages” (langues chiffrées). See “enciphered” transmissions
Oba Sachiko, 222
occupation of China, Japanese, 221–223, 235 collaboration with, 214, 225, 228
resistance to, 225
offset printing, 279
Olivetti, 9–10, 27, 42, 71, 199 globalization of, 56–58
Olympic Games (Beijing, 2008), 1–9, 10, 11, 94. See also Parade of Nations, Olympic
Ong, Walter, 2, 40, 186
“On the Nature of Chinese Ideography” (Creel), 68–69
“On the Psychology of How the Masses Search for Characters” (Du Dingyou), 260–261
Opium Wars, 105, 127
oracle bones, 71