by Bor, Daniel
171 Wilder Penfield along with his colleague Joseph Evans
W. Penfield and J. Evans, The frontal lobe in man: a clinical study of maximum removals. Brain, 1935. 58: 115–133.
172 Patients with prefrontal cortex damage . . . working memory deficit
D. Bor et al., Frontal lobe involvement in spatial span: converging studies of normal and impaired function. Neuropsychologia, 2006. 44(2): 229–237.
173 Hemispatial neglect . . . associated either with . . . prefrontal or parietal
M. Husain and C. Rorden, Non-spatially lateralized mechanisms in hemispatial neglect. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2003. 4(1): 26–36.
173 Neglected patients . . . place a mark . . . right edge
A. Parton, P. Malhotra, and M. Husain, Hemispatial neglect. J Neurol Neu-rosurg Psychiatry, 2004. 75(1): 13–21.
173 Edoardo Bisiach . . . asked hemispatial-neglect patients to imagine
E. Bisiach and C. Luzzatti, Unilateral neglect of representational space. Cortex, 1978. 14(1): 129–133.
174 Margarita Sarri . . . an experiment on neglect patients
M. Sarri, F. Blankenburg, and J. Driver, Neural correlates of crossmodal visual-tactile extinction and of tactile awareness revealed by fMRI in a right-hemisphere stroke patient. Neuropsychologia, 2006. 44(12): 2398–2410.
175 “There is no there, there”
L. C. Robertson, Binding, spatial attention and perceptual awareness. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2003. 4(2): 93–102.
175 Recognize colors and read words, but couldn’t do both
H. B. Coslett and G. Lie, Simultanagnosia: when a rose is not red. J Cogn Neurosci, 2008. 20(1): 36–48.
175 Bob Knight, has come across such a patient
R. T. Knight and M. Grabowecky, Escape from linear time: prefrontal cortex and conscious experience, in The new cognitive neurosciences, M. Gazzaniga, ed. 1995, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1357–1371.
176 Working memory and attention . . . prefrontal parietal network . . . both
R. Cabeza and L. Nyberg, Imaging cognition II: an empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. J Cogn Neurosci, 2000. 12(1): 1–47.
176 Increase the number of letters . . . working memory
T. S. Braver et al., A parametric study of prefrontal cortex involvement in human working memory. NeuroImage, 1997. 5 (1): 49–62.
176 Number of abstract relations between items of an IQ task
J. K. Kroger et al., Recruitment of anterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in human reasoning: a parametric study of relational complexity. Cereb Cortex, 2002. 12(5): 477–485.
176 Number of spatial locations you have to remember
D. Bor, J. Duncan, and A. M. Owen, The role of spatial configuration in tests of working memory explored with functional neuroimaging. Scand J Psych, 2001. 42(3): 217–224.
176 If you switch attention between tasks
C. Y. Sylvester et al., Switching attention and resolving interference: fMRI measures of executive functions. Neuropsychologia, 2003. 41(3): 357–370.
176 If you attend to visual changes on a screen
C. Buchel et al., The functional anatomy of attention to visual motion: a functional MRI study. Brain, 1998. 121 (Pt 7): 1281–1294.
N. Hon et al., Frontoparietal activity with minimal decision and control. J Neurosci, 2006. 26(38): 9805–9809.
176 Whenever we perform a complex or novel . . . task
J. Duncan and A. M. Owen, Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends Neurosci, 2000. 23(10): 475–483.
176 These regions . . . closely linked with IQ
J. R. Gray, C. F. Chabris, and T. S. Braver, Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci, 2003. 6(3): 316–322.
J. Duncan, A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 2000. 289(5478): 457–460.
177 Nikki Pratt . . . gave volunteers a classic attentional task
N. Pratt, A. Willoughby, and D. Swick, Effects of working memory load on visual selective attention: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Front Hum Neurosci, 2011. 5: 57.
177 Subsume working memory within an attentional framework
E. I. Knudsen, Fundamental components of attention. Annu Rev Neurosci, 2007. 30: 57–78.
C. Bundesen, T. Habekost, and S. Kyllingsbaek, A neural theory of visual attention: bridging cognition and neurophysiology. Psychol Rev, 2005. 112(2): 291–328.
178 Volunteers would view an array of 16 red squares
D. Bor et al., Encoding strategies dissociate prefrontal activity from working memory demand. Neuron, 2003. 37(2): 361–367.
179 Same experiment . . . this time with digits
D. Bor et al., Prefrontal cortical involvement in verbal encoding strategies. Eur J Neurosci, 2004. 19(12): 3365–3370.
179 Moving on to sequences of double digits
D. Bor and A. M. Owen, A common prefrontal-parietal network for mnemonic and mathematical recoding strategies within working memory. Cereb Cortex, 2007. 17(4): 778–786.
181 Cary Savage and colleagues showed that
C. R. Savage et al., Prefrontal regions supporting spontaneous and directed application of verbal learning strategies: evidence from PET. Brain, 2001. 124 (Pt 1): 219–231.
181 Vivek Prabhakaran . . . presented letters to participants
V. Prabhakaran et al., Integration of diverse information in working memory within the frontal lobe. Nat Neurosci, 2000. 3(1): 85–90.
181 Christopher Moore . . . demonstrated that extensive training
C. D. Moore, M. X. Cohen, and C. Ranganath, Neural mechanisms of expert skills in visual working memory. J. Neurosci, 2006. 26(43): 11187–11196.
181 Stanislas Dehaene . . . showed the transition
C. Landmann et al., Dynamics of prefrontal and cingulate activity during a reward-based logical deduction task. Cereb Cortex, 2007. 17(4): 749–759.
182 Tammet . . . extreme form of synesthesia
S. Baron-Cohen et al., Savant memory in a man with colour form-number synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome. J Consciousness Studies, 2007. 14(9–10): 237–251.
182 Tammet . . . far more numbers . . . short-term memory
Ibid.
182 Investigate his brain activity . . . one of our chunking tests
D. Bor, J. Billington, and S. Baron-Cohen, Savant memory for digits in a case of synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome is related to hyperactivity in the lateral prefrontal cortex. Neurocase, 2007. 13(5): 311–319.
184 Convert awkward obstacles into innovative solutions and . . . habits
D. Bor and A. K. Seth, Consciousness and the prefrontal parietal network: insights from attention, working memory and chunking. Front Psychol, 2012. 3: 63.
184 Crick popularized the idea . . . neurons act in harmony
F. Crick, The astonishing hypothesis: the search for the scientific soul. 1994, New York: Scribner.
184 Gamma band . . . a frequency previously linked with attention
H. Tiitinen et al., Selective attention enhances the auditory 40-Hz transient response in humans. Nature, 1993. 364(6432): 59–60.
184 Rats . . . swift . . . synchrony when in a deep sleep
C. H. Vanderwolf, Are neocortical gamma waves related to consciousness? Brain Res, 2000. 855(2): 217–224.
185 Two . . . labs, Stanislas Dehaene’s . . . and Bob Knight’s . . . have shown
R. T. Canolty et al., High gamma power is phase-locked to theta oscillations in human neocortex. Science, 2006. 313(5793): 1626–1628.
R. Gaillard et al., Converging intracranial markers of conscious access. PLoS Biol, 2009. 7(3): e61.
186 Time . . . attention to filter sensory input according . . . goals
Bundesen et al. (2005), see above.
Gaillard et al. (2009), see above.
187 Dozens of simultaneous electrodes
A. Maier, C. J. Aura, and D. A. Leopold, Infragranular sources of sustained local field potential responses in macaque primary visual cortex. J Neurosci , 2011. 31(6):
1971–1980.
187 Victor Lamme’s recurrent processing model
V.A.F. Lamme, How neuroscience will change our view on consciousness. Cogn Neurosci, 2010. 1(3): 204–220.
188 Global neuronal workspace model
Dehaene and Changeux (2011), see above.
S. Dehaene, M. Kerszberg, and J. P. Changeux, A neuronal model of a global workspace in effortful cognitive tasks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1998. 95(24): 14529–14534.
189 Studies of how the brain is wired
D. S. Modha and R. Singh, Network architecture of the long-distance pathways in the macaque brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2010. 107(30): 13485–13490.
189 Giulio Tononi’s information integration theory
G. Tononi, An information integration theory of consciousness. BMC Neurosci , 2004. 5: 42.
G. Tononi, Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto. Biol Bull, 2008. 215(3): 216–242.
189 This theory is similar to two other modern theories
A. K. Seth et al., Theories and measures of consciousness: an extended framework. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2006. 103(28): 10799–10804.
190 Prefrontal parietal network . . . kind of network . . . high . . . consciousness
Bor and Seth (2012), see above.
CHAPTER 6: BEING BIRD-BRAINED IS NOT AN INSULT
197 Story about a mature female bonobo named Matata
S. Savage-Rumbaugh and R. Lewin, Kanzi: the ape at the brink of the human mind. 1994, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
198 Not . . . conscious . . . between the pressure and the squealing
D. McFarland, Guilty robots, happy dogs: the question of alien minds. 2008, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
198 Animals appear to get bored
F. Wemelsfelder, Animal boredom: understanding the tedium of confined lives, in Mental health and well-being in animals, F. D. McMillan, ed. 2005, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
199 Corvid . . . same brain-to-body ratio as a chimpanzee
N. J. Emery and N. S. Clayton, The mentality of crows: convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science, 2004. 306(5703): 1903–1907.
199 These birds plan for the future
C. R. Raby et al., Planning for the future by western scrub-jays. Nature, 2007. 445(7130): 919–921.
199 Scrub jay . . . re-hide the food to fool the observer
J. M. Dally, N. J. Emery, and N. S. Clayton, Food-caching western scrub-jays keep track of who was watching when. Science, 2006. 312(5780): 1662–1665.
200 Crows can use a sequence of tools
J. H. Wimpenny et al., Cognitive processes associated with sequential tool use in New Caledonian crows. PLoS One, 2009. 4(8): e6471.
200 The rooks easily learned . . . drop stones into . . . water
C. D. Bird and N. J. Emery, Rooks use stones to raise the water level to reach a floating worm. Current Biol, 2009. 19(16): 1410–1414.
201 Observed in the great apes by Daniel Hanus
D. Hanus et al., Comparing the performances of apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus) and human children (Homo sapiens) in the floating peanut task. PLoS One, 2011. 6(6): e19555.
201 Five orangutans tested could pass this challenge
N. Mendes, D. Hanus, and J. Call, Raising the level: orangutans use water as a tool. Biol Lett, 2007. 3(5): 453–455.
202 Other animals that have passed it include
D. B. Edelman and A. K. Seth, Animal consciousness: a synthetic approach. Trends Neurosci, 2009. 32(9): 476–484.
203 Monkeys can be trained to tell . . . experience flips
N. K. Logothetis, Single units and conscious vision. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 1998. 353(1377): 1801–1818.
203 Nate Kornell . . . showed monkeys a set of dots
N. Kornell, L. K. Son, and H. S. Terrace, Transfer of metacognitive skills and hint seeking in monkeys. Psychol Sci, 2007. 18(1): 64–71.
204 Posterior parietal cortex . . . activity . . . matches level of confidence
R. Kiani and M. N. Shadlen, Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex. Science, 2009. 324(5928): 759–764.
204 Other species that have shown similar skills
C. Suda-King, Do orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) know when they do not remember? Anim Cogn, 2008. 11(1): 21–42.
A. L. Foote and J. D. Crystal, Metacognition in the rat. Curr Biol, 2007. 17(6): 551–555.
205 Rats . . . shown to apply simple forms of chunking
T. Macuda and W. A. Roberts, Further evidence for hierarchical chunking in rat spatial memory. J Exp Psych: Anim Behav Proc, 1995. 21(1): 20–32.
205 Herbert Terrance trained pigeons to peck
H. S. Terrace, Chunking by a pigeon in a serial learning task. Nature, 1987. 325(7000): 149–151.
205 Analogous to human forms of chunking
K. A. Ericcson, W. G. Chase, and S. Falloon, Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 1980. 208: 1181–1182.
205 Extent of our ability to chunk
C. M. Conway and M. H. Christiansen, Sequential learning in non-human primates. Trends Cogn Sci, 2001. 5(12): 539–546.
206 Observe different species at play
Ibid.
207 Patricia Greenfield . . . abilities to chunk . . . mirrored . . . language
P. M. Greenfield, Language, tools and brain: the ontogeny and phylogeny of hierarchically organized sequential behavior. Behav Brain Sci, 1991. 14: 531–595.
208 Zinacantecos babies and toddlers in southern Mexico
Ibid.
209 Mother’s placenta and the fetus . . . safe sedation
C. Koch, When does consciousness arise in human babies? Sci Am, September 2, 2009; www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=when-does-consciousness-arise.
211 Bottlenose dolphins, whose brain weighs . . . 1.8 kilograms
L. Marino, A comparison of encephalization between odontocete cetaceans and anthropoid primates. Brain Behav Evol, 1998. 51(4): 230–238.
211 African elephant . . . brain that weighs . . . 6.5 kilograms
M. Goodman et al., Phylogenomic analyses reveal convergent patterns of adaptive evolution in elephant and human ancestries. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2009. 106(49): 20824–20829.
211 Sperm whale . . . brain that tops 8 kilograms
L. Marino, Cetacean brain evolution: multiplication generates complexity. Int J Comp Psych, 2004. 17(1): 1–16.
211 Many factors . . . useful ratio of brain to body
S. Herculano-Houzel, The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain. Front Hum Neurosci, 2009. 3: 31.
212 Brain . . . similarity . . . in . . . other animals
Edelman and Seth (2009), see above.
212 All vertebrates . . . thalamus . . . but not all . . . cortex
A. B. Butler and W. Hodos, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: evolution and adaptation, vol. 2. 2005, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
212 Octopus . . . behaves . . . utterly belie its primitive label
Edelman and Seth (2009), see above.
213 If octopuses are conscious . . . never realize it from . . . anatomy
Ibid.
213 Giulio Tononi’s information integration theory
G. Tononi, Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto. Biol Bull, 2008. 215(3): 216–242.
214 Adam Barrett and Anil Seth . . . adapt the theory
A. B. Barrett and A. K. Seth, Practical measures of integrated information for time-series data. PLoS Comput Biol, 2011. 7(1): e1001052.
215 Massimini . . . practical rough-and-ready approximation
M. Massimini et al., Breakdown of cortical effective connectivity during sleep. Science, 2005. 309(5744): 2228–2232.
CHAPTER 7: LIVING ON THE FRAGILE EDGE OF AWARENESS
221 Concussions . . . severe brain damage . . . Alzheimer’s disease
B. Holmes, Deep impact: the bad news about banging your head. New Scientist , 2011. 2829: 38–41.
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