The Red Flag: A History of Communism

by Priestland, David

  77. G. Pritchard, The Making of the GDR, 1945–1953. From Antifascism to Stalinism (Manchester, 2004), p.196.

  78. M. Pittaway, ‘Workers in Hungary’, in E Breuning, J. Lewis and G. Pritchard, Power and the People. A Social History of Central European Politics, 1945–56 (Manchester, 2005), pp.68–9.

  79. Cited in Kenney, Rebuilding Poland, p.234.

  80. Pittaway, Eastern Europe, pp.92–3.

  81. Pritchard, The Making of the GDR, p.122.

  82. HannaŚwida-Ziemba, ‘Stalinizm i Społeczeństwo Polskie’, in J. Kurczewski (ed.), Stalinizm (Warsaw, 1989), p.49.

  83. Mark Frazier, The Making of the Chinese Industrial Workplace: State, Revolution, and Labour Management (Cambridge, 2002), p.146.

  84. J. Pelikan, The Czechoslovak Political Trials, 1950–1954: The Suppressed Report of the Dubcek Government’s Commission of Enquiry, 1968 (London, 1971), p.56.

  85. E. Friedman, P. Pickowicz and M. Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven, 1991), p.130.

  86. Ibid.

  87. Ibid., p.190.

  88. Ibid., pp.188, 196.

  89. G. Creed, Domesticating Revolution. From Socialist Reform to Ambivalent Transition in a Bulgarian Village (University Park, Pa, 1998), p.61.

  90. D. Kideckel, The Solitude of Collectivism. Romanian Villagers to the Revolution and Beyond (Ithaca, 1993), p.85.

  91. M. Lampland, The Object of Labor: Commodification in Socialist Hungary (Chicago, 1995), p.155.

  92. Creed, Domesticating Revolution, p.70.

  93. Pritchard, The Making of the GDR, p.201.

  94. Pittaway, Eastern Europe, p.60.

  PARRICIDE

  1. S. Reid, Khrushchev in Wonderland. The Pioneer Palace in Moscow’s Lenin Hills, 1962. Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, No. 1606, pp.1–5, 25–6.

  2. S. Reid, ‘The Exhibition Art of Socialist Countries, Moscow 1958–9, and the Contemporary Style of Painting’, in S. Reid and D. Crowley (eds.), Style and Socialism. Modernity and Material Culture in Post-War Eastern Europe (Oxford, 2000), p.103.

  3. Reid, Khrushchev, p.2.

  4. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers. The Last Testament, trans. and ed. S. Talbott (London, 1974), pp.98–101.

  5. M. Djilas, Memoir of a Revolutionary, trans. D. Willen (New York, 1973), pp.220–3.

  6. For these models, see S. Woodward, Socialist Unemployment: the Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945–1990 (Princeton, 1995), pp.58–60.

  7. C. Lilly, Power and Persuasion: Ideology and Rhetoric in Communist Yugoslavia, 1944–1953 (Boulder, 2001), p.123.

  8. M. Djilas, Tito: The Story from Inside, trans. V. Kojic and R. Hayes (London, 1981), pp.83–4.

  9. S. Pavlowitch, Tito. A Reassessment (London, 1992), p.81.

  10. Djilas, Tito, pp.95–6.

  11. M. Brkljačic, ‘Popular Culture and Communist Ideology’, in J. Lampe and M. Mazower (eds.), Ideologies and National Identities. The Case of Twentieth-Century Southeastern Europe (Budapest, 2004), p.197.

  12. R. Service, Stalin. A Biography (London, 2004), pp.581–6.

  13. F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (London, 1991), p.5.

  14. Y. Gorlizki and O. Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953 (New York, 2004), pp.124–31.

  15. V. Zubok and C. Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), p.142.

  16. Gorlizki and Khlevniuk, Cold Peace, pp.132–3.

  17. A. Knight, Beria. Stalin’s First Lieutenant (Princeton, 1993), p.190.

  18. V. Molotov, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Conversations with Felix Chuev, ed. Albert Resis (Chicago, 1993), p.334.

  19. A. Malenkov, O moem otse (Moscow, 1992), p.103; Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin, p.143.

  20. W. Hayter, The Kremlin and the Embassy (London, 1966), pp.106–7, 37–9.

  21. See Pravda, 13 March 1954.

  22. C. Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929–1969 (New York, 1973), p.370.

  23. Cited in M. Leffler, For the Soul of All Mankind. The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York, 2007), p.98.

  24. For the continuing role of ideological dogmatism on both sides, see Leffler, For the Soul, pp.147–50.

  25. Hayter, Kremlin, p.108.

  26. W. Thompson, Khrushchev: a Political Life (Basingstoke, 1995), p.8.

  27. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: the Glasnost Tapes, trans. and ed. J. Schecter and V. Luchkov (Boston, 1990), p.6.

  28. Cited in W. Taubman, Khrushchev. The Man and His Era (London, 2003), p.122.

  29. Burlatsky, Khrushchev, pp.65–6.

  30. Cited in Taubman, Khrushchev, p.274. For this account of the speech, see ibid., ch.11.

  31. For the speech, see Rech’ Khrushcheva na zakrytom zasedanii XX s”ezda KPSS: 24–25 fevralia 1956 g. (Munich, 1956).

  32. P. Jones, ‘Real and Ideal Responses to Destalinization’, in P. Jones (ed.), The Dilemmas of Destalinization. Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era (London, 2006), pp.41–62.

  33. Mihály, interviewed by James Mark, in J. Mark, ‘Society, Resistance and Revolution: The Budapest Middle Class and the Hungarian Communist State 1948–56’, English Historical Review 488 (2005), pp.975–6.

  34. Molotov, Molotov Remembers, p.334.

  35. R. János, ‘The Development of Imre Nagy as a Politician and a Thinker’, in G. Péteri (ed.), Intellectual Life and the Crisis of State Socialism in East Central Europe, 1953–1956 (Trondheim, 2001), pp.16–30.

  36. S. Csoóri, ‘Pamphlet’, cited in G. Litván (ed.), The Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Reform, Revolt and Repression, 1953–1963 (London, 1996), p.29.

  37. F. Lewis, The Polish Volcano. A Case History of Hope (London, 1959), p.146.

  38. Ibid., p.155.

  39. For an account of this episode, see Taubman, Khrushchev, p.293.

  40. M. Kramer, ‘New Evidence on Soviet Decision-Making and the 1956 Polish and Hungarian Crises’, Cold War International History Project [CWIHP] 8–9 (1996–7), p.53.

  41. M. Molnar, Budapest 1956 (London, 1971), p.266.

  42. Cited in Litván, Hungarian Revolution, p.127.

  43. S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park, Pa, 2000), p.188.

  44. M. Kramer, ‘The “Malin Notes” on the Crises in Hungary and Poland, 1956’, CWIHP 8–9 (1996–7), pp.392 ff.

  45. V. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, trans. D. Floyd (Garden City, NY, 1980), pp.133–4.

  46. Litván, Hungarian Revolution, pp.143–4.

  47. E. Hobsbawm, Interesting Times. A Twentieth-Century Life (London, 2002), p.205.

  48. Cited in D. Kertzer, Comrades and Christians. Religion and Political Struggle in Communist Italy (Cambridge, 1980), p.148.

  49. Ibid., pp.146–57.

  50. K. Middlemas, Power and the Party. Changing Faces of Communism in Western Europe (London, 1980), p.100.

  51. S. Gundle, I comunisti italiani tra Hollywood e Mosca: la sfida della cultura di massa (1943–1991) (Florence, 1995), p.252.

  52. Taubman, Khrushchev, pp.308–9.

  53. D. Kozlov, ‘Naming the Social Evil. The Readers of Novyi mir and Vladimir Dudintsev’s Not by Bread Alone, 1956–59 and Beyond’, in Jones (ed.), The Dilemmas of Destalinization, pp.80, 89.

  54. V. Dudintsev, Not by Bread Alone, trans. E. Bone (London, 1957), p.246.

  55. Ibid., p.438.

  56. Cited in Thompson, Khrushchev, p.238.

  57. Z. Mlynár, Conversations with Gorbachev: On Perestroika, the Prague Spring, and the Crossroads of Socialism (New York, 2002), p.36.

  58. W. L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain. Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (London, 1997), pp.178–9.

  59. L. Attwood, ‘Housing in the Khrushchev Era’, in M. Iliĉ et al. (eds.), Women in the Khrushchev Era (London, 2004), pp.186–8.

  60. Reid, ‘The Exhibition Art of Socialist Countries’, p.103.

  61. S. Reid
, ‘Women in the Home’, in iIliĉ et al. (eds.), Women in the Khrushchev Era, p.168.

  62. D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization (Cambridge, 1992), pp.232–3.

  63. S. Baron, Bloody Sunday in the Soviet Union. Novocherkassk, 1962 (Stanford, 2001), pp.26–7.

  64. A. Mikoian, Tak bylo. Razmyshlennia o minuvshem (Moscow, 1999), p.610.

  65. L. Alexeyeva and P. Goldberg, The Thaw Generation. Coming of Age in the post-Stalin Era (Boston, 1990), pp.95–7.

  66. P. McMillan, Khrushchev and the Arts. The Politics of Soviet Culture, 1962–1964 (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), pp.101–5.

  67. Reported in D. Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire. The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime (New York, 1998), p.236.

  68. Wu Hung, Remaking Beijing: Tiananmen Square and the Creation of a Political Space (London, 2005), pp.108–30.

  69. S. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung (Cambridge, 1989), p.154.

  70. S. Schram (ed.), Mao Tse-tung Unrehearsed: Talks and Letters, 1956–71 (Harmondsworth, 1974), pp.114–15.

  71. S. Goncharenko, ‘Sino-Soviet Military Cooperation’, in O. E. Westad (ed.), Brothers in Arms. The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance 1945–63 (Stanford, 1998), p.160.

  72. Communist China. Policy Documents with Analysis (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), pp.151–63.

  73. Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao (London, 1994), p.222.

  74. J. Ch’en, Mao Papers: Anthology and Bibliography (New York, 1970), pp.62–3.

  75. D. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China. State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, 1996), p.34.

  76. L. Zhang and C. Macleod (eds.), China Remembers (Oxford, 1999), p.76.

  77. S. Potter and J. Potter, China’s Peasants. The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, 1990), p.71.

  78. Zhang and Macleod, China Remembers, p.78.

  79. Li, Private Life, pp.277–8.

  80. Ibid., p.302.

  81. For the debate over the causes of the famine, see Yang, Calamity, pp.55–67. Yang emphasizes the wastefulness of the communal dining halls.

  82. For the estimate of 30 million ‘excess deaths’ (including ‘lost births’), see J. Banister, China’s Changing Population (Stanford, 1987), p.85. Chang and Halliday give much higher estimates, of 38 million deaths: J. Chang and J. Halliday, Mao: the Unknown Story (London, 2006), p.534.

  83. Cited in H. Harding, ‘The Chinese State in Crisis’, in R. Macfarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China. The Eras of Mao and Deng, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 1993), p.234.

  84. Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (Beijing, 1966), p.1.

  85. Cited in Harding, ‘Chinese State’, p.169.

  86. Gao Yuan, Born Red: a Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution (Stanford, 1987), pp.86, 89–90.

  87. Cited in P. Clark, The Chinese Cultural Revolution. A History (Cambridge, 2008), p.61.

  88. Ibid., p.2.

  89. A. Finnane, Changing Clothes in China. Fashion, History, Nation (London, 2007), p.237.

  90. For the concept of ‘virtuocracy’, see S. Shirk, ‘The Decline of Virtuocracy in China’, in J. Watson (ed.), Class and Social Stratification in post-Revolution China (Cambridge, 1984).

  91. Liu Guokai, A Brief Analysis of the Cultural Revolution, trans. A. Chan (Armonk, NY, 1987), p.47.

  92. J. Sheehan, Chinese Workers: A New History (London, 1998), pp.123–4.

  93. R. Madsen, Morality and Power in a Chinese Village (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1984), pp.180–98.

  94. G. White, The Politics of Class and Class Origin: The Case of the Cultural Revolution, Contemporary China Papers, 9 (Canberra, 1976), p.46.

  95. Cited in ibid., p.37.

  96. See R. Kraus, Class Conflict in Chinese Socialism (New York, 1981), pp.164–6.

  97. Zhang and Macleod, China Remembers, p.120.

  98. Ibid., pp.120–1.

  99. Cited in R. Macfarquhar and M. Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 2006), p.199.

  100. Ibid., p.155.

  101. Ibid., pp.162–3.

  102. Gao Yuan, Born Red, pp.179 ff.

  103. For these examples, see D. Leese, ‘The Mao Cult as Communicative Space’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8 (2007), pp.632–4.

  104. Cited in ibid., pp.633–4.

  105. Zhang and Macleod, China Remembers, p.140.

  GUERRILLAS

  1. Cited in J. L. Anderson, Che Guevara. A Revolutionary Life (London, 1997), p.130.

  2. Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 2nd edn (New York, 1996), p.316.

  3. P. Neruda, ‘La United Fruit Co.’ (1950), in P. Neruda, Canto General, trans. J. Schmitt (Berkeley, 1991).

  4. Cited in Anderson, Che Guevara, p.126.

  5. Anderson, Che Guevara, pp.163, 23.

  6. Cited in G. M. Kahin, The Asian-African Conference. Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Port Washington, NY, 1972), p.42.

  7. The film was originally called Potomok Chingiz-Khana (The Heir to Genghis Khan).

  8. C. Romulo, The Meaning of Bandung (Chapel Hill, 1956), p.91.

  9. Ibid., p.11.

  10. Kahin, The Asian-African Conference, p.46.

  11. The Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries (Belgrade, 1961).

  12. W. Shinn, ‘The “National Democratic State”: a Communist program for Less-Developed Areas’, World Politics 15, 3 (1963), pp.177–89.

  13. V. Zubok, A Failed Empire. The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill, 2007), pp.109–10.

  14. Shinn, ‘The “National Democratic State”’.

  15. This idea was first developed by the Indonesian Dipa Adit. See C. Jian, China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, 2001), p.212.

  16. J. Edgar Hoover to W. Jenkins, FBI Report, 7 April 1964, 6. Declassified Documents Reference System.

  17. C. Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge, 2000), pp.156–7.

  18. T. Nossiter, Communism in Kerala. A Study in Political Adaptation (London, 1982), ch.6.

  19. H. Van der Wee, Prosperity and Upheaval. The World Economy, 1945–1980 (Harmondsworth, 1987), pp.400–3.

  20. NSC 162/2, in United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954 (Washington, DC, 1979–2003), vol. ii, p.587.

  21. S. G. Rabe, ‘Latin America and Anticommunism’, in R. Immerman (ed.), John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War (Princeton, 1990), pp.163, 161.

  22. W. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (Boulder, 1996), pp.180–2. Though for a more sceptical view, see J. Carter, Inventing Vietnam. The United States and State Building, 1954–1968 (Cambridge, 2008), pp.79–81.

  23. E. Moise, Land Reform in China and North Vietnam (Chapel Hill, 1983), pp.201–6.

  24. S. Schlesinger and S. Kinzer, Bitter Fruit. The Story of the American Coup in Guatemala (Cambridge, Mass., 2005).

  25. Fidel Castro, My Life, ed. I. Ramet (London, 2007), p.173.

  26. Ibid., p.67.

  27. See J. Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground (Cambridge, Mass., 2002).

  28. Castro, 1 January 1959, cited in M. Pérez-Stable, The Cuban Revolution. Origins, Course and Legacy (New York, 1999), p.61.

  29. Che Guevara to Jean Daniel, 14 December 1957, in C. Franqui, Diary of the Cuban Revolution (New York, 1980), p.269.

  30. Cited in H. Matthews, Castro. A Political Biography (London, 1969), p.141.

  31. H. Thomas, Cuba. The Pursuit of Freedom (New York, 1971), pp.1215–18.

  32. A. Kapcia, Cuba. Island of Dreams (Oxford, 2000), pp.103–4.

  33. Castro, My Life, p.195.

  34. Pérez-Stable, The Cuban Revolution, pp.7–9