The Red Flag: A History of Communism

by Priestland, David

  35. Ibid., p.69.

  36. Cited in Anderson, Che Guevara, pp.388–90.

  37. T. Szulc, Fidel. A Critical Portrait (London, 1987), p.416.

  38. P. Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions. Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976 (Chapel Hill, 2002), p.18.

  39. A. Fursenko and T. Naftali, ‘One Hell of a Gamble’. Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (New York, 1997), p.39.

  40. Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, p.18.

  41. Libre Belgique, 14 October 1960, cited in S. Weissman, American Foreign Policy in the Congo, 1960–1964 (Ithaca, 1974), p.116.

  42. For these themes, see Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and Nation Building in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, 2000).

  43. Revolucion, 20 November 1959, in S. Balfour, Castro (London, 1990), p.80.

  44. Interview with Jean Daniel, 25 July 1963, cited in M. Löwy, The Marxism of Che Guevara. Philosophy, Economics and Revolutionary Warfare, 2nd edn (Lanham, 2007), p.59.

  45. J. Bunck, Fidel Castro and the Quest for a Revolutionary Culture (University Park, Pa, 1994), pp.23–7.

  46. R. Fagen, The Transformation of Political Culture in Cuba (Stanford, 1969), p.53.

  47. A. Kapcia, Cuba in Revolution. A History since the Fifties (London, 2008), ch.6.

  48. Anderson, Che Guevara, p.453.

  49. Cited in C. Brundenius, Economic Growth, Basic Needs and Income Distribution in Revolutionary Cuba (Lund, 1981), p.71.

  50. Ricardo Rojo, quoted in Anderson, Che Guevara, p.565

  51. Alberto Granado, quoted in ibid.

  52. Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (London, 2003), pp.10–11.

  53. Cited in Fursenko and Naftali, ‘One Hell of a Gamble’, p.21.

  54. Alfredo Maneiro, quoted in Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, p.22.

  55. Luben Perkoff, quoted in Richard Gott, Guerrilla Movements in Latin America (Oxford, 2008), p.111.

  56. See T. Wickham-Crowley, ‘Winners, Losers and Also-Rans: Toward a Comparative Sociology of Latin American Guerrilla Movements’, in S. Eckstein (ed.), Power and Popular Protest. Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, 2001), pp.138–41; T. Wickham-Crowley, Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America. A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes since 1956 (Princeton, 1992).

  57. A. Angell, ‘The Left in Latin America since c.1920’, in L. Benthall (ed.), Latin America: Politics and Society since 1930 (Cambridge, 1998), p.110.

  58. C. Johnson, Communist China and Latin America, 1959–1967 (New York, 1970).

  59. Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, pp.81–4.

  60. Lúcio Lara, cited in ibid., p.83.

  61. Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, p.84.

  62. E. Guevara, The African Dream. The Diaries of the Revolutionary War in the Congo (London, 2001), pp.6–8.

  63. Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa – Essays on Socialism (Dar-es-Salaam, 1968), p.11.

  64. Kwame Nkrumah, Revolutionary Path (New York, 1973), p.30.

  65. M. Radu and K. Somerville, ‘The Congo’, in C. Allen, M. Radu and K. Somerville (eds.), Benin, the Congo and Burkina Faso. Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1989), pp.159, 164–8.

  66. Pepetela, Mayombe (London, 1983), p.ii.

  67. Ibid., p.2.

  68. M. Hall and T. Young, Confronting Leviathan: Mozambique since Independence (London, 1997), pp.5–11; D. Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism in Angola and Mozambique (London, 1992), pp.15–17.

  69. P. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral. Revolutionary Leadership and People’s War (Cambridge, 1983), p.41.

  70. Ibid., p.87.

  71. J. Marcum, The Angolan Revolution. Exile Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (1962–1976) (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), pp.48–51.

  72. A. Drew, ‘Bolshevizing Communist Parties: The Algerian and South African Experience’, in International Research in Social History 48 (2003), p.192.

  73. D. Fortescue, ‘The Communist Party of South Africa and the African Class in the 1940s’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 24 (1991), pp.481–512.

  74. D. Everatt, ‘Alliance Politics of a Special Type: The Roots of the ANC/SACP Alliance, 1950–54’ Journal of Southern African Studies 18 (1992), pp.32–8.

  75. A. Gresh, ‘The Free Officers and the Comrades: The Sudanese Communist Party and Nimeiri Face to Face, 1969–1971’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21 (1989), p.395. See also G. Warburg, Islam, Nationalism and Communism in a Traditional Society: The Case of Sudan (London, 1978).

  76. R. Mortimer, Indonesian Communism under Sukarno. Ideology and Politics, 1959–1965 (Ithaca, 1974), pp.366–7.

  77. See, for instance, Stephen M. Streeter, ‘Nation Building in the Land of Eternal Counterinsurgency: Guatemala and the Contradictions of the Alliance for Progress’, Third World Quarterly 27 (2006), pp.57–68.

  78. M. Leffler, For the Soul of All Mankind. The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York, 2007), p.211. For this obsession with personal humiliation, see F. Logevall, Choosing War. The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam (Berkeley, 1999), p.393.

  79. Mortimer, Indonesian Communism, ch.7.

  80. There is still disagreement over the role of the Communists in the coup. See H. Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia, 2nd edn (Ithaca, 1988), ch.4; J. M. Van der Kroef, ‘Origins of the 1965 Coup in Indonesia: Probabilities and Alternatives’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 3 (1972), pp.277–98; Mortimer, Indonesian Communism, pp.413–41.

  81. For interpretations of the causes of the violence, see R. Cribb, ‘Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966’, Asian Survey 42, 4 (2002), pp.550–63. For numbers, see ibid., pp.558–9.

  82. Rostow to Johnson, 11 October 1967, cited in O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge, 2005), p.178.

  STASIS

  1. K. Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu’s Romania (Berkeley, 1991), pp.174–6.

  2. For this ideological change, see François Fejtö, A History of the People’s Democracies: Eastern Europe since Stalin, trans. D. Weissbort (London, 1971), pp.76 ff.

  3. R. Stone, Satellites and Commissars. Strategy and Conflict in the Politics of Soviet-Bloc Trade (Princeton, 1996), pp.30–1.

  4. Vladimir Tismaneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: a Political History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley, 2003), ch.1.

  5. Cited in M. Fischer, Nicolae Ceauşescu. A Study in Political Leadership (London, 1989), p.85.

  6. Fischer, Ceauşescu, p.151, ch.7.

  7. A. Gabanyi, ‘Nicolae Ceauşescu and his Personality Cult’, in A. Gabanyi, The Ceauşescu Cult: Propaganda and Power Policy in Communist Romania (Bucharest, 2000), p.18.

  8. A. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World. The Politics of the Borderlands from pre- to post-Communism (Stanford, 2000), p.302.

  9. D. Deletant, Ceauşescu and the Securitate: Coercion and Dissent in Romania, 1965–1989 (London, 1995), pp.154–6.

  10. M. Vickers, The Albanians: A Modern History (London, 1995), p.196.

  11. P. Lendvai, Eagles in Cobwebs. Nationalism and Communism in the Balkans (London, 1969), p.196.

  12. A. Buzo, The Guerrilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea (London, 1999), p.59.

  13. Kim Il Sung, On the Three Principles of National Unification (Pyongyang, 1972), p.3.

  14. For a view that emphasizes stratification, see H.-L. Hunter, Kim Il-Song’s North Korea (Westport, 1999), ch.1. For a view that emphasizes inclusiveness, see B. Cumings, ‘The Last Hermit’, New Left Review 6 (2000).

  15. For these details of everyday life, see Hunter, Kim Il-Song, pp.173–4.

  16. Á. Horváth and Á. Szakolczai, The Dissolution of Communist Power: the Case of Hungary (London, 1992), pp.62–3.

  17. B. Denitch, The Legitimation of a Revolution: the Yugoslav Case (New Haven, 1976), p.94.

  18. Deletant, Ceauşescu and the Securitate,
pp.212–16.

  19. L. Siegelbaum, ‘The Faustian Bargain of the Soviet Automobile’, in PEECS papers No. 24 (Trondheim, 2008), p.1.

  20. Cited in J. Zatlin, ‘The Vehicle of Desire: The Trabant, the Wartburg, and the End of the GDR’, German History 15, 3 (1997), p.358.

  21. Ibid., p.359

  22. M. Burawoy and J. Lukács, The Radiant Past: Ideology and Reality in Hungary’s Road to Capitalism (Chicago, 1992), pp.125–6.

  23. This is the main argument of the Hungarian economist Janos Kornai, Economics of Shortage (Amsterdam, 1980).

  24. S. Goodman, ‘Soviet Computing and Technology Transfer: An Overview’, World Politics 31 (1979), p.567.

  25. S. Kotkin, Armageddon Averted. The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000 (Oxford, 2000), pp.63–4.

  26. N. Shmelev, in S. Cohen and K. Van den Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost. Interviews with Gorbachev’s Reformers (New York, 1989), p.149.

  27. J. Kopstein, The Politics of Economic Decline in East Germany, 1945–1989 (Chapel Hill, 1997), p.190.

  28. P. Shelest, ‘On umel vesti apparatnye igry, a stranu zabrosil…’, in Iu Aksiutin, Brezhnev: Materialy k Biografii (Moscow, 1991), p.218.

  29. Z. Mlynář, Night Frost in Prague: the End of Humane Socialism, trans. P. Wilson (London, 1980), p.86.

  30. Kotkin, Armageddon Averted, p.50.

  31. Cited in Kopstein, Politics, p.43.

  32. See ibid., ch.2.

  33. Mlynář, Night Frost, p.66.

  34. G. Golan, Reform Rule in Czecholovakia: the Dubček Era, 1968–1969 (Cambridge, 1973), pp.230–1.

  35. Jaromír Navrátil, The Prague Spring 1968: A National Security Archive Documents Reader, trans. M. Kramer et al. (Budapest, 1998), pp.20–2.

  36. Mlynář, Night Frost, pp.82–6.

  37. Ibid., p.44.

  38. J. Satterwhite, ‘Marxist Critique and Czechoslovak Reform’, in R. Taras (ed.), The Road to Disillusion. From Critical Marxism to Postcommunism in Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY, 1992), pp.115–34.

  39. J. Piekalkiewicz, Public Opinion Polling in Czechoslovakia, 1968–69: Results and Analysis of Surveys Conducted during the Dubcek Era (New York, 1972).

  40. A. Dubcek, Hope Dies Last. The Autobiography of Alexander Dubcek, trans. J. Hochman (London, 1993), p.150.

  41. Navrátil, The Prague Spring, p.67.

  42. M. Kramer, ‘The Czechoslovak Crisis and the Brezhnev Doctrine’, in C. Fink, P. Gassert and D. Junker (eds.), 1968: The World Transformed (Cambridge, 1998), pp.121–45.

  43. M. Kundera, ‘Preface’, in J. Skvorecky, Mirakl (Paris, 1978), p.4.

  44. A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford, 1996), pp.30–1, 41.

  45. Cited in R. Tökés, Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957–1990 (Cambridge, 1996), p.72.

  46. Kopstein, Politics, p.81.

  47. V. Bunce, ‘The Empire Strikes Back: The Evolution of the Eastern Bloc from a Soviet Asset to a Soviet Liability’, International Organization 39 (1985), p.20.

  48. K. Poznanski, ‘Economic Adjustment and Political Forces: Poland since 1970’, International Organization 40 (1986), p.457.

  49. Horváth and Szakolczai, The Dissolution of Communist Power.

  50. Ibid., p.110.

  51. K. Jarausch, ‘Care and Coercion. The GDR as Welfare Dictatorship’, in K. Jarausch (ed.), Dictatorship as Experience. Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR (New York, 1999), ch.3.

  52. M. Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600–1800 (New Haven, 1983). This parallel is drawn by Horváth and Szakolczai.

  53. Xiaobo Lü and Elizabeth Perry, Danwei. The Changing Chinese Workplace in Historical and Comparative Perspective (Armonk, NY, 1997), pp.169–94.

  54. Interviews by Andrew Walder in A. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism. Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley, 1986), p.140.

  55. Ibid., pp.141–2.

  56. A. Zinoviev, The Reality of Communism (London, 1985), p.139.

  57. V. Shlapentokh, Public and Private Life of the Soviet People: Changing Values in post-Stalin Russia (New York, 1989), p.117.

  58. Zinoviev, Reality, p.139

  59. Shlapentokh, Public and Private, p.118.

  60. Interview cited in A. Yurchak, Everything was Forever, until It was No More. The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton, 2006), pp.96–7.

  61. This case is described in M. Fulbrook, The People’s State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker (New Haven, 2005), p.239.

  62. Burawoy and Lukács, Radiant Past, pp.40–2.

  63. M. Haraszti, A Worker in a Worker’s State: Piece-rates in Hungary, trans. M. Wright (Harmondsworth, 1977), pp.88–9.

  64. Interview in Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism, p.176.

  65. D. Kideckel, The Solitude of Collectivism: Romanian Villagers to the Revolution and Beyond (Ithaca, 1993), p.130.

  66. A. Zinoviev, The Yawning Heights, trans. G. Clough (London, 1979), pp.186–8.

  67. Zinoviev, Reality, pp.127, 65.

  68. Horváth and Szakolczai, The Dissolution of Communist Power, p.55.

  69. S. Shirk, Competitive Comrades: Career Incentives and Student Strategies in China (Berkeley, 1982), p.150.

  70. Shlapentokh, Public and Private, pp.165, 171; V. Shlapentokh, Love, Marriage, and Friendship in the Soviet Union: Ideals and Practices (New York, 1984).

  71. Haraszti, A Worker in a Worker’s State, pp.88–9.

  72. Ibid.

  73. Cited in A. Port, Conflict and Stability in the German Democratic Republic (Cambridge, 2007), p.245.

  74. D. Mason, Public Opinion and Political Change in Poland (Cambridge, 1985), p.86.

  75. D. Bahry, ‘Society Transformed? Rethinking the Social Roots of Perestroika’, Slavic Review 52 (1993), p.537.

  76. Burawoy and Lukács, Radiant Past, p.123.

  77. Cited in Kideckel, Solitude of Collectivism, p.183.

  78. M. Lampland, The Object of Labor: Commodification in Socialist Hungary (Chicago, 1995), pp.335–6.

  79. See survey in R. Tökés, Murmur and Whispers: Public Opinion and Legitimacy Crisis in Hungary, 1972–1989 (Pittsburgh, 1997), p.14.

  80. Mason, Public Opinion, p.63.

  81. Blondinka za uglom (1983), dir. V. Bortko.

  82. Shlapentokh, Public and Private, p.192.

  83. Ibid., pp.80–1.

  84. Fulbrook, The People’s State, pp.230–1.

  85. Tökés, Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution, p.139.

  86. Yurchak, Everything was Forever, p.201.

  87. T. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc: a History of Rock Music in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (New York, 1990), p.129.

  88. Ibid., p.146.

  89. Yurchak, Everything was Forever, p.215.

  90. Cited in ibid., p.234.

  91. W. Burr (ed.), The Kissinger Transcripts (New York, 1998), pp.59–66.

  HIGH TIDE

  1. R. Balsvik, Haile Selassie’s Students. The Intellectual and Social Background to Revolution, 1952–1977 (Lansing, Mich., 1985), pp.213–23.

  2. ‘The Philosophy of the Fashion Show in the Era of Nationalism’, pamphlet, March 1968, cited in Balsvik, Students, p.214.

  3. For this episode, see Balsvik, Students, p.216.

  4. Ibid., p.202.

  5. See D. McAdam, Freedom Summer (Oxford, 1988).

  6. Ibid., p.4.

  7. Cited in M. Rothschild, A Case of Black and White. Northern Volunteers and the Southern Freedom Summers, 1964–1965 (Westport, 1982), p.181.

  8. Cited in R. Fraser, 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt (New York, 1987), p.79.

  9. A. Marwick, The Sixties. Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the United States, c.1958–c.1974 (Oxford, 1998), pp.486–9.

  10. Cited in Fraser, 1968, p.80.

  11. T. Hecken and A. Grzenia, ‘Situationism’, in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds.), 1968 in Europe. A History of Protest and Activism, 195
6–1977 (New York, 2008), pp.23–32.

  12. Dark Star (ed.), Beneath the Paving Stones. Situationists and the Beach, May 1968 (Edinburgh, 2001), pp.23–4.