The History of Jihad: From Muhammad to ISIS

by Robert Spencer

  40. Ibid., 159.

  41. Imam Muslim, Sahih Muslim, rev. ed., translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqi, bk. 19, no. 4326 (Kitab Bhavan, 2000).

  42. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 437.

  43. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, 70.

  44. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 438.

  45. Ibid., 450.

  46. Ibid., 452.

  47. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 8, The Victory of Islam, translated by Michael Fishbein (State University of New York Press, 1997), 11.

  48. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 452.

  49. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 8, 12.

  50. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 452.

  51. Ibid., 454.

  52. Ibid., 460.

  53. Muhammed Ibn Ismaiel Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari: The Translation of the Meanings, translated by Muhammad M. Khan, vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 2813 (Darussalam, 1997).

  54. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 461.

  55. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 3043.

  56. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 93; cf. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 464.

  57. Abu-Dawud Sulaiman bin Al-Aash’ath Al-Azdi as-Sijistani, Sunan abu-Dawud, translated by Ahmad Hasan, bk. 38, no. 4390 (Kitab Bhavan, 1990).

  58. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 464.

  59. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 93.

  60. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 464.

  61. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 57, no. 3128.

  62. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 490.

  63. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 9, bk. 97, no. 7409.

  64. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 504.

  65. Ibid., 509.

  66. Yahiya Emerick, The Life and Work of Muhammad (Alpha Books, 2002), 239.

  67. Ibid., 240.

  68. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 511.

  69. Ibid.

  70. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 132–33.

  71. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 515.

  72. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 136.

  73. Ibid., 137.

  74. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 57, no. 3152.

  75. Imam Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 10, no. 3761.

  76. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 515.

  77. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 137.

  78. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 5, bk. 64, no. 4200.

  79. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 142.

  80. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 1, bk. 8, no. 371.

  81. Imam Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 8, no. 3329.

  82. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 1, bk. 8, no. 371.

  83. Ibid.

  84. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 545.

  85. Ibid., 546.

  86. Ibid., 547.

  87. Ibid.

  88. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 2, 168.

  89. As-Sijistani, Sunan abu-Dawud, bk. 38, no. 4346.

  90. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 567.

  91. Ibid., 569.

  92. Guillaume explains: “Ha’it means wall and also the garden which it surrounds.”

  93. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 589.

  94. Ibid., 595–96.

  95. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 2941.

  96. Ibid., vol. 5, bk. 64, no. 4424.

  97. Ibid., vol. 4, bk. 61, no. 3618.

  98. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 19, no. 4294.

  99. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 2785.

  100. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 10, no. 31; cf. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 1, bk. 2, no. 25.

  101. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 645–46.

  102. Ibid., 643.

  103. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 19, no. 4366.

  104. Sa’d, Kitab Al-Tabaqat Al-Kabir, vol. 1, 328.

  105. Ibid., vol. 1, 328–29.

  106. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 659–60. “T.” refers to al-Tabari, a ninth-century Muslim historian whose recension of this material provides additional information.

  Chapter Two

  1. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, bk. 31, no. 5916.

  2. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 55, no. 2741.

  3. At-Tirmidhi, vol. 1, bk. 46, no. 3673. Sunnah.com. http://sunnah.com/urn/635490

  4. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 10, The Conquest of Arabia, translated by Fred M. Donner (State University of New York Press, 1993), 7.

  5. Ibid., 8.

  6. Ibid., 8–9.

  7. Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, 183.

  8. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 5, bk. 62, no. 3667.

  9. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 10, 11–12.

  10. Akbar Shah Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 1 (Darussalam, 2000), 276.

  11. Fred Donner, Muhammad and the Believers at the Origins of Islam (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 100–01.

  12. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 10, 41.

  13. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 9, bk. 88, no. 6922; cf. vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 3017.

  14. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 10, 103.

  15. Ibid., 100–01.

  16. Ibid., 100.

  17. Ibid., 104.

  18. Ibid.

  19. Ibid., 102.

  20. Ibid., 121.

  21. Ibid., 133.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Ibid.

  24. Abubakr Asadulla, Islam vs. West: Fact or Fiction? A brief historical, political, theological, philosophical, and psychological perspective (iUniverse, 2009), 42.

  25. Modern-day Basra in Iraq.

  26. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 11, The Challenge to the Empires, translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship (State University of New York Press, 1993), 1–2.

  27. Ibid., 4.

  28. Ibid., 6.

  29. Ibid., 4.

  30. Ibid., 7.

  31. Ibid.

  32. Ibid., 59–60.

  33. Ibid., 67.

  34. Ibid., 68.

  35. Ibid.

  36. Agha Ibrahim Akram, Islamic Historical General Khalid Bin Waleed (Lulu Press, 2016).

  37. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 11, 129.

  38. Ibid., 158.

  39. Al-Tabari places the battle at the end of Abu Bakr’s reign as caliph, during Khalid’s stint as commander of the Muslim armies; most historians, however, place it several years later.

  40. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 11, 94.

  41. Ibid., 94.

  42. Ibid., 103.

  43. H. U. Rahman, Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE (Ta-Ha Publishers, 1999), 59–60, 63–64.

  44. At-Tirmidhi, vol. 3, bk. 19, no. 1606. Sunnah.com, https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi/21/69

  45. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 1, 327.

  46. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 58, no. 3162.

  47. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 11, 173.

  48. Ibid., 174.

  49. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 1, 334.

  50. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 12, The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine, translated by Yohanan Friedman (State University of New York Press, 1992), 31.

  51. Ibid., 31.

  52. Ibid., 32.

  53. Ibid., 34.

  54. Ibid., 36.

  55. Ibid., 39.

  56. Ibid.

  57. Ibid., 167.

  58. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 1, 367.

&
nbsp; 59. Ibid.

  60. Ibid., 376.

  61. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 12, 191.

  62. Robert G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam (Darwin Press, 1997), 69.

  63. Ibid., 72–73.

  64. Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1951), 3.

  65. Ibid., 4.

  66. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 13, The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt, translated by Gautier H. A. Juynboll (State University of New York Press, 1989), 108.

  67. Ibid.

  68. Ibid.

  69. Abu Ja’far Muhammad bin Jarir al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 3, 9, in Kalid Ibn Al-Walid (Brother Noah Publishing, 2015), 224.

  70. Bat Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), 271–72.

  71. Ibid.

  72. Ibid.

  73. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 13, 165.

  74. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It, 121.

  75. Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam, 274.

  76. Ibid., 275.

  77. “Khalifa Umar bin al-Khattab—Death of Umar,” Alim, http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KUM/19/2

  78. Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies, translated by C. R. Barber and S. M. Stern (George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971), 118.

  79. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 5, bk. 62, no. 3699.

  80. Theophanes the Confessor, The Chronicle of Theophanes: Anni Mundi 6095-6305 (A.D. 602-813), translated by Harry Turtledove (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 44.

  81. Yehuda D. Nevo and Judith Koren, Crossroads to Islam (Prometheus Books, 2003), 229.

  82. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 6, bk. 65, no. 4784.

  83. Rahman, Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE, 77–79.

  84. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 15, The Crisis of the Early Caliphate, translated by R. Stephen Humphreys (State University of New York Press, 1990), 185.

  85. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 16, The Community Divided, translated by Adrian Brockett (State University of New York Press, 1997), 39.

  86. Ibid., 52–166 passim.

  87. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 17, The First Civil War, translated by G. R. Hawting (State University of New York Press, 1996), 29.

  88. Ibid., 34.

  89. Ibid., 79.

  90. Ibid.

  91. Ibid., 101.

  92. Ibid.

  93. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 18, Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Mu’awiyah, translated by Michael G. Morony (State University of New York Press, 1987), 3–4.

  94. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 2, 112, in Muslim Studies by Goldziher, 44.

  95. Goldziher, Muslim Studies, 105.

  96. Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai, Shi’ite Islam, 2nd ed., translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr (State University of New York Press, 1977), 195.

  97. Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, translated by Anne Carter (Pantheon Books, 1971), 190.

  98. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 4, bk. 56, no. 2924.

  99. Wilferd Madelung, “Hasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Taleb,” Encyclopedia Iranica, December 15, 2003, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali

  100. Rahman, Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE, 99–101.

  101. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 19, The Caliphate of Yazid b. Mu’awiyah, translated by I. K. A. Howard (State University of New York Press, 1990), 129.

  102. Ibid., 131–32.

  103. Ibid., 136–37.

  104. Ibid.

  105. Ibid.

  106. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1782), vol. 5, ch. 51, part 8, 256.

  107. Ibid.

  108. H. Z. (J. W.) Hirschberg, “The Problem of the Judaized Berbers,” Journal of African History 4, no. 3 (1963): 317–18.

  109. L. W. Barnard, The Graeco-Roman and Oriental Background of the Iconoclastic Controversy (E. J. Brill, 1974), 18.

  Chapter Three

  1. Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Dhikr Fath Al-Andalus (History of the Conquest of Spain), translated by John Harris Jones (Williams & Norgate, 1858), 18.

  2. Ibid.

  3. Ibid.

  4. Ibid., 19.

  5. Ibid.

  6. Ibid., 19–20.

  7. “Al Maggari: Tarik’s Address to His Soldiers, 711 CE, from The Breath of Perfumes,” Internet Medieval Source Books, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/711Tarik1.asp

  8. Ibid.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Al-Hakam, Dhikr Fath Al-Andalus, 22.

  11. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5, ch. 51, part 8, 267.

  12. Ibid.

  13. Warren H. Carroll, The Building of Christendom (Christendom College Press, 1987), 269.

  14. Chronicle of Alfonso III, 9, in The Building of Christendom by Carroll, 263.

  15. Ibid.

  16. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam, translated by David Maisel, Paul Fenton, and David Littman (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1985), 182.

  17. Ibid., 182–83.

  18. Jan Hogendorn, “The Hideous Trade: Economic Aspects of the ‘Manufacture’ and Sale of Eunuchs,” Paideuma 45 (1999): 139.

  19. Derryl N. MacLean, Religion and Society in Arab Sind (Brill, 1989), 37.

  20. Ibid., 37.

  21. K. S. Lal, The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India (Aditya Prakashan, 1992), 118.

  22. Arun Shourie, Harsh Narain, Jay Dubashi, Ram Swarup, and Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, vol. 1, A Preliminary Survey (Voice of India, 1990), 264.

  23. MacLean, Religion and Society in Arab Sind, 38.

  24. Shourie et al., Hindu Temples, 264.

  25. MacLean, Religion and Society in Arab Sind, 39.

  26. B. R. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan (Thacker and Company Ltd., 1941), 50.

  27. Shourie et al., Hindu Temples, 205–06.

  28. Ibid., 206.

  29. Ibid., 212.

  30. Ibid., 207.

  31. Abu Abdur Rahman Ahmad bin Shu’aib bin ‘Ali an-Nasa’i, Sunan an-Nasa’i, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab, bk. 25, ch. 41, no. 3175 (Darussalam, 2007).

  32. Ibid., no. 3177.

  33. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 24, The Empire in Transition, translated by David Stephan Powers (State University of New York Press, 1989), 40.

  34. Ibid.

  35. Ibid.

  36. Ibid., 40–41.

  37. Ibid., 41.

  38. H. A. R. Gibb, The Arab Conquests in Central Asia (AMS Press, 1970), 65–66.

  39. G. R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (Routledge, 1986), 86.

  40. Ibid., 80.

  41. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 25, The End of Expansion, translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship (State University of New York Press, 1989), 127–28.

  42. Ibid., 128.

  43. Ibid.

  44. Ibid., 126.

  45. Tabatabai, Shi’ite Islam, 202–03.

  46. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 26, The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate, translated by Carole Hillenbrand (State University of New York Press, 1989), 24.

  47. Ibid., 24–25.

  48. Carroll, The Building of Christendom, 274.

  49. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5, ch. 52, part 2, 301.

&nbs
p; 50. Hitler’s Table Talk 1941–1944, translated by Norman Cameron and R. H. Stevens (Enigma Books, 2000), 667.

  51. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 27, The Abbasid Revolution, translated by John Alden Williams (State University of New York Press, 1985), 174.

  52. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 3, 68.

  53. Michael the Syrian, The Chronicle of Michael the Great, Patriarch of the Syrians, translated by Robert Bedrosian (Sources of the Armenian Tradition, 2013), 144.

  54. Ibid., 145.

  55. Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes, 142.

  56. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 2, 333.

  57. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5, ch. 52, part 3, 322–23.

  58. Ibid., 323.

  59. Ibid.

  60. Antoine Fattal, Le statut légal des non-Musulmans en pays d’Islam (Université Saint-Joseph Institut de lettres orientales, 1958), 188.

  61. Michael the Syrian, The Chronicle of Michael the Great, 145.

  62. Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes, 163.

  63. Ibid.

  64. Ibid.

  65. Bat Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam, 302.

  66. Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (Modern Library, 2002), 55.

  67. Najeebabadi, The History of Islam, vol. 3, 82.

  68. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5, ch. 52, part 4, 325.

  69. Ibid., 325–26.

  70. Ibid., 326.

  71. Ibid., 327.

  72. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 32, The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate, translated by C. E. Bosworth (State University of New York Press, 1987), 196–97. Bracketed material added by the English translator.

  73. Michael the Syrian, The Chronicle of Michael the Great, 151.

  74. Ibid.

  75. Al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 32, 224.

  76. Michael the Syrian, The Chronicle of Michael the Great, 153.

  77. Ibid., 154.

  78. Ahmed ibn Naqib al-Misri, Reliance of the Traveller (‘Umdat al-Salik): A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law, translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller (Amana Publications, 1999), section o4.9.

  79. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5, ch. 56, part 1, 468.

  80. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 186.

  81. Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam (Princeton University Press, 1984), 47–48.

  82. Ibid., 48–49.