The History of Jihad: From Muhammad to ISIS

by Robert Spencer

  83. Paul Markham, “The Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure?” De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History, August 1, 2005, http://deremilitari.org/2013/09/the-battle-of-manzikert-military-disaster-or-political-failure/

  84. Tabatabai, Shi’ite Islam, 208–09.

  85. Ibid., 209-210.

  86. “Qarmatiyyah,” Overview of World Religions, St. Martin’s College, https://web.archive.org/web/20070428055134/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/qarma.html

  87. J. J. Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam (Routledge, 1965), 130–31.

  88. Ibid., 130.

  89. Cyril Glassé, The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Rowman & Littlefield, 1989), 91.

  Chapter Four

  1. Karen Armstrong, “The curse of the infidel: A century ago Muslim intellectuals admired the west. Why did we lose their goodwill?” The Guardian, June 20, 2002.

  2. María Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (Little, Brown, 2002), 29–30.

  3. Barack Obama, “Remarks by the President on a New Beginning,” Cairo, June 4, 2009.

  4. Richard Fletcher, Moorish Spain (University of California Press, 1992), 172–73.

  5. Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 93.

  6. Menocal, The Ornament of the World, 72–73.

  7. Kenneth Baxter Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 9, 10.

  8. Ibid., 12.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Menocal, The Ornament of the World, 70.

  11. Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain, 12.

  12. Ibid., 34.

  13. Darío Fernández-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise (ISI Books, 2016), 126–27.

  14. Ibid., 128–29.

  15. Ibid., 130–31.

  16. Ibid., 130.

  17. Ibid., 131–32.

  18. Ibid., 132.

  19. Ibid.

  20. Carroll, The Building of Christendom, 412.

  21. Fernández-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise, 129.

  22. Ibid., 130.

  23. Reinhart Dozy, Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in Spain, translated by Francis Griffin Stokes (Goodword Books, 2001), 497.

  24. Carroll, The Building of Christendom, 428.

  25. Dozy, Spanish Islam, 498.

  26. Ibid., 504.

  27. Ibid., 520.

  28. Ibid., 523.

  29. Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (Perennial Library, 1987), 178.

  30. Bernard F. Reilly, The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065-1109, Library of Iberian Resources Online, chs. 10–12, http://libro.uca.edu/alfonso6/index.htm

  31. Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 108.

  32. Fernández-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise, 182–83.

  33. Richard Gottheil and Meyer Kayserling, “Granada,” Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), accessed at http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada

  34. David Levering Lewis, God’s Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215 (W. W. Norton, 2008), 364.

  35. Carroll, The Building of Christendom, 523.

  36. Ibid., 523.

  37. Al-Misri, Reliance of the Traveller, section o11.9, 11.

  38. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 187.

  39. Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 172; Joseph Kenny, The Spread of Islam Through North to West Africa (Dominican Publications, 2000).

  40. Fernández-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise, 158.

  41. Ibid., 159.

  42. Ibid.

  43. Hogendorn, “The Hideous Trade: Economic Aspects of the ‘Manufacture’ and Sale of Eunuchs,” 139.

  44. Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam, 144.

  45. Ibid., 147.

  46. Ahmad Shayeq Qassem, Afghanistan’s Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised (Ashgate Publishing, 2009), 19.

  47. Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam, 144.

  48. Shourie, et al., Hindu Temples, 211.

  49. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan, 51.

  50. Shourie et al., Hindu Temples, 212.

  51. Ibid., 212.

  52. Ibid., 233.

  53. Ibid., 234–35.

  54. Ibid., 203–04.

  55. Ibid., 204.

  56. Ibid.

  57. Ibid., 203.

  58. Sita Ram Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India (Voice of India, 1982), 45–46.

  59. Ibid., 46.

  60. Ibid.

  61. Ibid.

  62. Ibid., 46–47.

  63. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan, 50.

  64. Shourie et al., Hindu Temples, 210.

  65. Ibid.

  66. Ibid., 211.

  67. M. J. Akbar, The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict between Islam and Christianity (Routledge, 2002), 101.

  68. J. J. Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam, 144.

  69. Shourie et al., Hindu Temples, 219.

  70. Ibid., 229.

  71. Ibid., 211.

  72. Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam, 144.

  73. Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India, 47.

  74. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 188.

  75. Robert Hoyland, “The Rise of Islam,” in The Oxford History of Byzantium, edited by Cyril Mango (Oxford University Press, 2002).

  76. Aristakes Lastiverts’i, History, translated by Robert Bedrosian (Sources of the Armenian Tradition, 1985), 55.

  77. Markham, “The Battle of Manzikert.”

  78. Lastiverts’i, History, 57.

  79. Markham, “The Battle of Manzikert.”

  80. Lastiverts’i, History, 121.

  81. John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee (Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 341.

  82. Ibid., 342–43.

  83. Markham, “The Battle of Manzikert.”

  84. Norwich, Byzantium, 346.

  85. Markham, “The Battle of Manzikert.”

  86. Norwich, Byzantium, 354.

  87. R. Scott Peoples, Crusade of Kings (Wildside Press LLC, 2007,) 13.

  88. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine 634-1099 (Cambridge University Press, 1992), 412.

  89. Halil Inalcik, “Osman Ghazi’s Siege of Nicaea and the Battle of Bapheus,” in The Ottoman Emirate, 1300-1389: Halcyon Days in Crete I—A Symposium Held in Rethymnon, 11-13 January 1991, edited by Elizabeth Zachariadou (Crete University Press, 1993), 77.

  90. Gil, A History of Palestine 634-1099, 473–76. To his credit, Caliph al-Muqtadir did respond to the 923 persecutions by ordering the church rebuilt.

  91. Ibid.

  92. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 1, 30–32.

  93. Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Routledge, 2000), 101.

  94. Gil, A History of Palestine 634-1099, 376.

  95. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 1, 35–36; Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 16–17; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History (Yale University Press, 1987), 44.

  96. Runciman, vol. 1, 49.

  Chapter Five

  1. Pope Urban II, “Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095, According to Fulcher of Chartres,” quoted in Gesta Dei per Francos by Bongars, 1, 382 f., translated in A Source Book. for Medieval History, edited by Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar Holmes McNeal (Scribners, 1905), 513–17, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-fulcher.html.

  2. James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, vol. 1 (Ginn and Co., 1904), 312–16. Reprinted at Medieval Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2a.html

  3. Ibid.

  4. Thomas Madde
n, The New Concise History of the Crusades (Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 17–18.

  5. Ibid., 18.

  6. Ibid., 19.

  7. Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes (Schocken Books, 1984), 44.

  8. Ibid., 19.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Ibid., 39.

  11. Ibid.

  12. Ibid., 40.

  13. Ibid., 39.

  14. R. G. D. Laffan, ed. and trans., Select Documents of European History 800-1492, vol. 1 (Henry Holt, 1929). See also “The Crusaders Capture Jerusalem, 1099,” EyeWitness to History, http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/crusades.htm

  15. Archbishop Daimbert, Duke Godfrey, and Count Raymond, “Letter to Pope Paschal II, September, 1099,” in Readings In Church History, edited by Colman J. Barry (Christian Classics, 1985), 328.

  16. Gil, A History of Palestine 634-1099, 827.

  17. Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 64–65.

  18. Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 50.

  19. “Remarks as Delivered by President William Jefferson Clinton, Georgetown University, November 7, 2001,” Georgetown University Office of Protocol and Events, www.georgetown.edu.

  20. Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, xvi.

  21. John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, 1998), 58.

  22. Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 70–71.

  23. Robinson, Readings in European History.

  24. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 19–20.

  25. Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 263.

  26. Ibid., 136.

  27. Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 111.

  28. Ibid., 112.

  29. Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 138.

  30. Ibid., 144.

  31. Ibid., 145.

  32. Ibid.

  33. Ibid., 151–52.

  34. Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect In Islam (Basic Books, 1967), 2–3.

  35. Ibid., 3–4.

  36. Ibid., 4–5.

  37. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, translated by Henry Yule, edited and annotated by Henri Cordier (John Murray, 1920), ch. 23.

  38. Lewis, The Assassins, 12.

  39. Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, ch. 24.

  40. Ibid.

  41. Michael the Syrian, The Chronicle of Michael the Great, 190.

  42. Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 179.

  43. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 74.

  44. Ibid., 76.

  45. Ibid.

  46. Ibid., 78.

  47. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187 (Cambridge University Press, 1951), 487.

  48. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 80.

  49. Ibid., 81–82.

  50. Ibid., 70.

  51. Pope Innocent III, Quia Maior, April 19–29, 1213, https://genius.com/Pope-innocent-iii-quia-maior-annotated

  52. Ibid.

  53. Ibid.

  54. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 181–82.

  55. John Esposito, ed., The Oxford History of Islam (Oxford University Press, 1999), 692.

  56. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 3 (Cambridge University Press, 1951), 398–402.

  57. Kenneth Meyer Setton, The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (American Philosophical Society, 1976), 146.

  58. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 3, 398–402.

  59. Ibid.

  60. Ibid.

  61. Ibid.

  62. Richard Bonney, Jihad from Qur’an to bin Laden (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 159–60.

  63. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 189.

  64. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 196–97.

  65. Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 120.

  66. Andrew Bostom, The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism (Prometheus, 2007), 102.

  67. Ibid., 104.

  68. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 189.

  69. Ibid.

  70. Damian J. Smith, “The Papacy, the Spanish Kingdoms and Las Navas de Tolosa,” Anuario de Historia de la Iglesia 20 (2011): 171.

  71. Ibid., 174.

  72. Ibid., 175.

  73. Ibid., 177.

  74. Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 124.

  75. Lal, The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India, 49–50.

  76. Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India, 45–48.

  77. Ibid., 48.

  78. Ibid.

  79. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan, 52.

  80. Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India, 48.

  81. Ibid.

  82. Ibid.

  83. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan, 50.

  84. Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India, 48.

  85. Ibid., 49.

  86. Ibid.

  87. Ibid.

  88. Ambedkar, Thoughts on Pakistan, 57.

  89. Lal, The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India, 119.

  90. Ibid., 50–51.

  91. Ibid., 119–20.

  92. Ibid., 119.

  Chapter Six

  1. Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (Morrow Quill Publishers, 1977), 23.

  2. Inalcik, “Osman Ghazi’s Siege of Nicaea and the Battle of Bapheus,” 77.

  3. Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (Basic Books, 2007), 5.

  4. Michael G. Knapp, “The Concept and Practice of Jihad in Islam,” Parameters (Spring 2003): 83.

  5. Lewis, The Assassins, 1–2.

  6. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 55.

  7. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 66, part 1, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap66.htm

  8. Ibid.

  9. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 38.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 48, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm

  12. Ibid.

  13. Ibid.

  14. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 55.

  15. Ibid.

  16. Ibid.

  17. Ibid., 42–43.

  18. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 48, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm

  19. Ibid.

  20. Godfrey Goodwin, The Janissaries (Saqi Books, 1997), 36–37.

  21. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 53, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm.

  22. Bat Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam, 115.

  23. Thomas Sowell, Conquests and Cultures: An International History (Basic Books, 1998), 192.

  24. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 46.

  25. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 54, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm

  26. Ibid.

  27. Ibid.

  28. Leslie Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1993), 158; Wilhelm Baum, “Manuel II Palaiologos (1391-1425 A.D.),” De Imperatoribus Romanis, http://www.roman-emperors.org/manuel2.htm

  29. Baum, “Manuel II Palaiologos (1391-1425 A.D.).”

  30. Ibid.

  31. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 66, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm

 
32. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 65.

  33. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 23.

  34. Baum, “Manuel II Palaiologos (1391-1425 A.D.).”

  35. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 64, part 60, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap64.htm

  36. Baum, “Manuel II Palaiologos (1391-1425 A.D.).”

  37. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 65, part 29, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap65.htm

  38. Ibid.

  39. Ibid.

  40. Baum, “Manuel II Palaiologos (1391-1425 A.D.).”

  41. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 65, part 46, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap65.htm

  42. John Julius Norwich, A Short History of Byzantium (Vintage Books, 1999), 362.

  43. Justin Marozzi, Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World (Da Capo Press, 2004), 358.

  44. Ibid., 344.

  45. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, ch. 66, part 32, https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap66.htm

  46. Pope Benedict XVI, “Faith, reason and the university: memories and reflections,” address at University of Regensburg, September 12, 2006.

  47. Ibid.

  48. Khaled Abu Toameh, “Gazans warn pope to accept Islam,” Jerusalem Post, September 18, 2006.

  49. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 115.

  50. Ibid., 91.

  51. Steven Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople 1453 (Cambridge University Press, 1965), 145.

  52. Andrew Wheatcroft, Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam (Random House, 2005), 195.

  53. “Leading Sunni Sheikh Yousef Al-Qaradhawi and Other Sheikhs Herald the Coming Conquest of Rome,” MEMRI, December 6, 2002, https://www.memri.org/reports/leading-sunni-sheikh-yousef-al-qaradhawi-and-other-sheikhs-herald-coming-conquest-rome

  54. Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople 1453, 149.

  55. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 115–16.

  56. Ibid., 129.

  57. Warren Carroll: The Glory of Christendom: A History of Christendom, vol. 3 (Christendom Press, 1993), p. 571.

  58. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, 130–31.

  59. Ibid., 131.

  60. Ibid., 133.

  61. Ibid., 139.

  62. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, 192.

  63. Ibid., 193.

  64. Ibid.