China at War

by Hans van de Ven

  15. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 139.

  16. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 370.

  17. Ibid., 375.

  18. Report, 1937, quoted in Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 376.

  19. Tillman Durdin, ‘Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking’, The New York Times, 9 January 1938.

  20. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 164.

  21. Hattori Satoshi with Edward J. Drea, ‘Japanese Operations from July to December 1937’, in Peattie et al., eds., The Battle for China, 177.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Tillman Durdin, ‘Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking’, The New York Times, 9 January 1938.

  24. Ibid.

  25. Ibid.

  26. Hattori Satoshi with Drea, ‘Japanese Operations from July to December 1937’, 179. On the Nanjing Massacre, see Zhang Xianwen, ed., Nanjing Datusha Shiliao Ji (Historical Materials for the Nanjing Massacre); Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity; Yang Daqing, ‘Challenges of Trans-national History’, ‘Convergence or Divergence’ and ‘Revisionism and the Nanjing Atrocity’; Timothy Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape of Nanking.

  27. Tillman Durdin, ‘Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking’, The New York Times, 9 January 1938.

  28. Ibid.

  29. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity: Separating Fact from Fiction (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000), 93.

  30. Ibid., 95.

  31. Ibid., 97.

  32. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 379.

  33. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 102–4.

  34. Ibid., 99.

  35. Tillman Durdin, ‘All Captives Slain’, The New York Times, 18 December 1937.

  36. Tillman Durdin, ‘Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking’, The New York Times, 9 January 1938.

  37. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 106–7.

  38. Hallett Abend, ‘Reign of Disorder Goes on in Nanking’, The New York Times, 25 January 1938.

  39. Tillman Durdin, ‘All Captives Slain’, The New York Times, 18 December 1937.

  40. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 137.

  41. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 1–8, 81–127.

  42. Yang Daqing, ‘Challenges of Trans-national History: Historians and the Nanjing Atrocity’, in SAIS Review 19:2 (1999), 143; Mashiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 109–17.

  43. Mashiro Yamamoto, Nanking, 115.

  44. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 141.

  45. Ibid., 155.

  46. Ibid., 147.

  47. Ibid., 147.

  48. Ibid., 145–6.

  49. Ibid., 152–3.

  50. Ibid., 153.

  51. Ibid., 163.

  52. Ibid., 186.

  53. Xie Bingying, A Woman Soldier’s Own Story: The Autobiography of Xie Bingying, Lily Chia Brissman and Barry Brissman, trans. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), 270.

  54. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 154.

  55. Ibid., 220.

  56. Hans van de ven, War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945 (London: Routledge, 2003), 218–19.

  57. Ibid., 201.

  58. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 174.

  59. SLGB, vol. 41 (January–June 1938), 87–8; James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds., China’s Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 (London: Routledge, 1992), 53.

  60. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 234.

  61. Stephen R. MacKinnon, Wuhan, 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008), 93.

  62. Ibid., 75–80.

  63. Quoted in MacKinnon, Wuhan, 1938, 98.

  64. Zhang Xianwen, ed., Kang Ri Zhanzheng de Zhengmian Zhanchang (Battles at the Front during the War of Resistance) (Zhengzhou: Henan Renmin Chubanshe, 1996), vol. 1, 18–19; Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 410–11.

  65. Stephen MacKinnon, ‘The Defence of the Central Yangtze’, in Peattie et al., eds., The Battle for China, 191.

  66. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 425.

  67. Ibid., 437–45; Tobe Ryoichi, ‘The Japanese Eleventh Army in Central China’, in Peattie et al., eds., The Battle for China, 209.

  68. ‘Million Chinese Hail 1st Victory’, Washington Post, 8 April 1938.

  69. ‘Japanese Force in Flight’, The Times, 8 April 1938.

  70. ‘Chinese Increase Shantung Victory’, The New York Times, 9 April 1938.

  71. Chen Cheng, Chen Cheng Huiyilu: Kang Ri Zhanzheng (Chen Cheng Memoirs: The War of Resistance) (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2005), 21–2.

  72. ‘Wartime Organic Law’, ZHMGZYSLCB, series 4, vol. 1, 48–51.

  73. Wang Chaoguang, ‘Kangzhan yu Jianguo: Guomindang Linshi Daibiao Dahui Yanjiu’ (‘The War of Resistance and National Reconstruction: An Investigation of the Emergency National Conference of the Nationalists’), paper presented at History and Memory of the War: A Conference to Mark the Seventieth Anniversary of the Victory in the War of Resistance, Taipei, 7 July 2015, 8.

  74. Ibid.

  75. Ibid., 9.

  76. Ibid., 10.

  77. Van de Ven, War and Nationalism in China, 265–6.

  78. Ibid., 266.

  79. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 254.

  80. Ibid.

  81. ‘Chinese Hurl Army across Yellow River’, Washington Post, 16 April 1938.

  82. MacKinnon, ‘The Defence of the Central Yangtze’, 194.

  83. De Fremery, report no. 11, in Gerke Teitler and Kurt Werner Radtke, eds., A Dutch Spy in China: Reports on the First Phase of the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1939) (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 193, 200.

  84. ‘Secret Telegram from Li Zongren’, 13 April 1937, in Zhang Xianwen, ed., Kang Ri Zhanzheng Zhengmian Zhanchang, vol. 1, 619.

  85. MacKinnon, Wuhan, 1938, 112.

  86. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi (Office of War History, Defence Research Institute, Department of Defence, Japan), Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Zuozhan Zhanshi (History of the Army’s Campaigns during the China Incident), Tian Qizhi, trans. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1979), vol. 2: 2, 87–112.

  87. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 235.

  88. Ibid., 154.

  89. Ibid., 303.

  90. SLGB, vol. 42 (July–December 1938), 204.

  91. Yang Weizhen, ‘1938 Nian Changsha Dahuo Shijian de Diaocha yu Jiantao’ (‘An Investigation and Evaluation of the Great Fire of Changsha of 1938’), in Wu Sufeng, ed., Buke Hulue de Zhanchang (A Battlefield That Must Not be Ignored) (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2013), 66–7.

  92. Ibid., 66–70.

  93. ‘Japanese Rush On’, The New York Times, 9 November 1937.

  94. ‘12,000 stay to fight’, The New York Times, 10 November 1937.

  95. ‘Japan Lays Gains to Massing of Foe’, The New York Times, 9 December 1937.

  96. ‘Chinese Wreck Vast Japanese Mill Interests’, Washington Post, 20 December 1937.

  97. ‘Military Affairs Council Battle Plan for the Third Period’, Zhang Xianwen, ed., Kang Ri Zhanzheng de Zhengmian Zhanchang, vol. 1, 18–19.

  98. ‘Suchow is Occupied by the Japanese’, The New York Times, 20 May 1938.

  99. ‘Chengchow Being Razed’, The New York Times, 11 June 1938.

  100. Quoted in Micah S. Muscolino, The Ecology of War in China: Henan Province, the Yellow River, and Beyond, 1938–1950 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 26.

  101. CKS material.

  102. Ma Zhonglian, ‘Huayuankou Jueti de Junshi Yiyi’ (‘The Military Significance of the Breaking of the Yellow River Dike at Huayuankou’), in Kang Ri Zhanzheng Yanjiu (Studies on the War of Resistance), vol. 4 (1999), 207.

  103. Muscolino, The Ecology of War in China, 29.

  104. Ibid., 30–31.

  105. Ibid., 87.

  106. ‘Panic Rules Capital’, Washington Post, 25 October 1938.

  107. ‘Japanese Battle Way into Blazing Cities’, Washington Post, 26 October 1938.

  108. Yang Weizhen, ‘An Investigation and Evaluation of t
he Great Fire of Changsha of 1938’, 71.

  109. Ibid., 73.

  110. Ibid., 73–7; Li Zhiyu, Jingxuan: Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya (The Startled Bow: The Political Life of Wang Jingwei) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2014), 195.

  111. Hallett Abend, Chaos in Asia (London: The Bodley Head, 1940), 120–25; Canton Current Events and Rumours, 16–31 October 1938, in Archives of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Second Historical Archives of China, 679(1)/32417.

  112. Quoted in Chi Pang-yuan, Juliuhe (The Great Flowing River) (Taipei: Yuanjian Tianxia, 2014), 102.

  113. Wang Qisheng, ‘Kangzhan Chuqi de “He” Sheng’ (‘Voices for “Peace” at the Beginning of the War of Resistance’), in Lü Fangshan, ed., Zhanzheng de Lishi yu Jiyi (The History and Memory of the War) (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2015), 24.

  114. Lei Haizong, ‘Jianshe – Zai Wang de Di San Zhou Wenhua’ ‘Reconstruction – Anticipating a Third Cycle’, in Lei Haizong, Zhongguo Wenhua yu Zhongguo de Bing (Chinese Culture and China’s Armed Forces) (Hong Kong: Longmen Shudian, 1968), 214.

  115. Ibid., 212–13.

  116. Ibid., 222.

  117. Ibid., 214.

  118. MacKinnon, Wuhan, 1938, 47.

  119. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 143.

  120. Chi Pang-yuan, Juliuhe, 82.

  121. Ibid., 82.

  122. Ibid., 87.

  123. Ibid., 85–6.

  124. Ibid., 92.

  125. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Along_the_Sungari_River

  126. Chi Pang-yuan, Juliuhe, 89–96.

  127. Ibid., 98.

  128. Ibid., 100.

  129. Ibid., 99.

  130. Ibid., 103.

  131. Ibid.

  132. Zhang Xiangwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 531.

  133. For a summary, see ibid., 586.

  134. Chiang Kaishek, ‘First Speech at the Nanyue Military Conference’, ZHMGZYSLCB, I, 132.

  Chapter 7: Regime Change

  1. James Baldwin, No Name in the Street (New York: Dial Press, 1972), 88–9.

  2. Quoted in Zhang Xianwen, Zhonghua Minguo Shi (History of the Republic of China) (Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, 2005), vol. 3, 89.

  3. Kazuo Horiba, Riben Dui Hua Zhanzheng Zhidao Shi (History of Strategic Planning in Japan’s War against China), Wang Peilan, trans. (Beijing: Junshi Kexue Chubanshe, 1988), 195–205.

  4. Zhang Xianwen, Zhonghua Minguo Shi, vol. 3, 89.

  5. Ibid., 500.

  6. Quoted in ibid., 500–501.

  7. James W. Morley, ed., The China Quagmire: Japan’s Expansion on the Asian Continent, 1933–1941 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 290–91.

  8. Kazuo Horiba, Riben Dui Hua Zhanzheng Zhidao Shi, 110.

  9. John Thompson, A Sense of Power: The Roots of America’s Global Role (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 147–8.

  10. John W. Garver, Chinese–Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 38–41. See Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Threat from the East, 1933–41, Volume 3: Moscow, Tokyo and the Prelude to the Pacific War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992), 93–4, for slightly different figures.

  11. Chiang Kaishek, Kunmianji (Diary Entries on Striving in Adversity), Huang Zijin and Pan Guangzhe, eds., (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2011), 645.

  12. SLGB, vol. 42 (July–December 1938), 689.

  13. Chiang Kaishek, Kunmianji, 646.

  14. Ibid.

  15. Quoted in Yang Zhiyi, ‘The Road to Lyric Martyrdom: Reading the Poetry of Wang Zhaoming’, Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), vol. 37 (2015), 142.

  16. John Hunter Boyle, China and Japan at War, 1937–1945: The Politics of Collaboration (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972), 194–205. The agreement did not mention dates, on the grounds that the schedule of implementation might have to be changed, depending on the circumstances; Rana Mitter, China’s War with Japan, 1937– 1945: The Struggle for Survival (London: Penguin Books, 2014), 205–6.

  17. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 203–5.

  18. Ibid., 13.

  19. Kazuo Horiba, Riben Dui Hua Zhanzheng Zhidao Shi, 215–16.

  20. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 215.

  21. Ibid., 220.

  22. Cai Dejin, Lishi de Guaitai: Wang Jingwei Guomin Zhengfu (A Historical Monster: The Wang Jingwei Government) (Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, 1993), 35–50.

  23. Ibid., 35–40.

  24. Mitter, China’s War with Japan, 203.

  25. Ibid., 80.

  26. Quoted in Li Zhiyu, Jingxuan: Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya (The Startled Bow: The Political Life of Wang Jingwei) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2014), 176–7.

  27. Ibid., 187.

  28. Ibid., 188 and SLGB, vol. 42 (July–December 1938), 497.

  29. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 200–201.

  30. Li Zhiyu, Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya, 192.

  31. Ibid., 212–22.

  32. ‘Guo Taiqi to Wang Jingwei’, 27 December 1938, in Zhou Gu, ed., Hu Shi Ye Gongchao Shi Mei Waijiao Wenjian Shougao (The Diplomatic Messages of Hu Shi and Yeh Kungch’ao as Ambassadors to the USA) (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Gonsi, 2001), 6.

  33. Ibid., 217.

  34. Ibid., 216.

  35. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 227.

  36. Ibid., 227–8.

  37. Ibid., 223.

  38. Shao Minghuang, ‘Xiao Zhenying Gongzuo’ (‘The Xiao Zhenying Project’), 15–16. http://jds.cass.cn/UploadFiles/zyqk/2010/12/201012091549026982.pdf; SLGB, vol. 42 (July– December 1938), 341.

  39. SLGB, vol. 42 (July–December 1938), 341–3, 407.

  40. ‘Chen Kewen to Wang Jingwei’, 4 January 1939, in Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 349.

  41. Ibid., 408.

  42. Li Zhiyu, Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya, 232.

  43. Ibid., 240–41; Boyle, China and Japan at War, 226.

  44. Li Zhiyu, Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya, 243–4.

  45. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 230–31; Zhang Xianwen, Zhonghua Minguo Shi, vol. 3, 58–62.

  46. Li Zhiyu, Wang Jingwei de Zhengzhi Shengya, 240–52.

  47. Ibid., 249.

  48. Kazuo Horiba, Riben Dui Hua Zhanzheng Zhidao Shi, 321–42.

  49. ‘Tokyo is Launching Monopolies in China’, The New York Times, 30 December 1939.

  50. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 271–6.

  51. ‘Wang Puppet Rule in China in Danger’, The New York Times, 23 January 1940.

  52. SLGB, vol. 43 (January–July 1940), 70–71.

  53. Boyle, China and Japan at War, 294.

  54. Ibid., 293–4.

  55. Ibid., 294.

  56. Ibid., 304.

  57. Edna Tow, ‘The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945’, in Mark Peattie, Edward J. Drea and Hans van de Ven, eds., The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 259–60.

  58. ‘101 Japanese Planes Raid Chinese Airfield’, The New York Times, 28 December 1939.

  59. ‘Bomb Kills Chiang’s First Wife’, The New York Times, 25 December 1939.

  60. Xu Yong, Zhengfu Zhi Meng: Riben Qinhua Zhanlue (The Dream of Conquest: Japan’s Strategy in Invading China) (Nanning: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, 1993), 224.

  61. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi (Office of War History, Defence Research Institute, Department of Defence, Japan), Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Zuozhan Zhanshi (History of the Army’s Campaigns during the China Incident), Tian Qizhi, trans. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1979), vol. 2: 2, 187–8.

  62. Mitter, China’s War with Japan, 2.

  63. ‘Air Raid Kills 200 in China’s Capital’, The New York Times, 16 January 1939.

  64. ‘Thousands Leave Chungking in Raids’, The New York Times, 16 January 1939.

  65. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi, Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Z
uozhan Zhanshi, vol. 2: 2, 190–93.

  66. Tow, ‘The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War’, 249.

  67. I am grateful to Richard Frank for providing me with this nice detail.

  68. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi, Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Zuozhan Zhanshi, vol. 3: 2, 35–40.

  69. Tow, ‘The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War’, 264–5.

  70. Ibid., 271.

  71. Ibid.

  72. Ibid., 268–71.

  73. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi, Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Zuozhan Zhanshi, vol. 3: 2, 44.

  74. Chi Pang-yuan, Juliuhe (The Great Flowing River) (Taipei: Yuanjian Tianxia, 2014), 123.

  75. Ibid., 124.

  76. Ibid., 123.

  77. Ibid.

  78. Ibid., 144.

  79. Ibid.

  80. Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, 420.

  81. Ibid., 639.

  82. Tow, ‘The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War’, 273.

  83. Ibid., 275.

  84. ‘Japanese Bombing is Called Stupid’, The New York Times, 12 December 1939.

  85. ‘Jiang Weiyuanzhang Dui Diyici Nanyue Junshi Huiyi Xunci’ (‘Generalissimo Chiang’s Address to the First Nanyue Military Conference’), 25 November 1938, in ZHMGZYSLCB, series 2, vol. 1, 128.

  86. Ibid., 129.

  87. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi (History of China’s War of Resistance) (Nanjing: Nanjing Daxue Chubanshe, 2001), 645.

  88. Ibid.

  89. Xu Yong, Zhengfu Zhi Meng, 273.

  90. Quoted in Tobe Ryoichi, ‘The Japanese Eleventh Army in Central China’, in Peattie, et al., eds., The Battle for China, 220.

  91. ‘President Obtains Data on China War’, The New York Times, 21 December 1939.

  92. Zhang Xianwen, Zhongguo Kang Ri Zhanzheng Shi, 651.

  93. Ibid., 647–8.

  94. ‘State that 13,000 Chinese Have Been Killed in South, 15,000 near Hankow’, The New York Times, 17 December 1939.

  95. Tobe Ryoichi, ‘The Japanese Eleventh Army in Central China’, 220.

  96. Xu Yong, Zhengfu Zhi Meng, 273.

  97. Barak Kushner, The Thought War: Japanese Imperial Propaganda (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2006), 1–49.

  98. Riben Fangweiting Fangwei Yanjiusuo Zhanshishi, Zhongguo Shibian Lujun Zuozhan Zhanshi, vol. 3: 2, 1–28.

  99. Lyman Van Slyke, ‘The Battle of the Hundred Regiments: Problems of Coordination and Control during the Sino-Japanese War’, in Modern Asian Studies, vol. 30:4 (1996), 979–1005.