Fast Food Genocide

by Dr. Joel Fuhrman

  37Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Fulkerson JA, et al. Changes in the frequency of family meals from 1999 to 2010 in the homes of adolescents: trends by sociodemographic characteristics. Journal Adolescent Health. 2013;52(2):201–6.

  38Hammons AJ, Fiese BH. Is frequency of shared family meals related to the nutritional health of children and adolescents? Pediatrics. 2011;127(6):e1565–74.

  39Hunt G, Fazio A, MacKenzie K, et al. Food in the family: bringing young people back in. Appetite. 2011;56(2):394–402.

  40Muñiz EI, Silver EJ, Stein R. Family Routines and Social-Emotional School Readiness Among Preschool-Age Children. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 2014; 35 (2): 93.

  41Walker?Barnes CJ, Mason CA. Ethnic differences in the effect of parenting on gang involvement and gang delinquency: a longitudinal, hierarchical linear modeling perspective. Child Dev. 2001;72(6):1814–31.

  42Conklin AI, Forouhi NG, Surtees P, et al. Social relationships and healthful dietary behaviour: evidence from over-50s in the EPIC cohort, UK. Social Sci Med. 2014;100:167–75.

  43Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC. Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends Cog Sci. 2009;13(10):447–54.

  44Cortright J. City Report: Less in common. June 2015. http://cityobservatory.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CityObservatory_Less_In_Common.pdf.

  45Rosenwald MS. “Can Gardening Transform Convicted Killers and Carjackers? Prison Officials Get Behind the Bloom.” Washington Post, 7 June 2015.

  46Gesch CB. Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners: randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2002;181(1):22–28.

  47Zaalberg A, Nijman H, Bulten E, et al. Effects of nutritional supplements on aggression, rule-breaking, and psychopathology among young adult prisoners. Aggress Behav. 2010;36(2):117–26.

  48Frazee-Walker D. Vegan diet impacts recidivism. Zoukis Prisoner Resources. 20 May 2013. http://www.prisonlawblog.com/blog/vegan-diet-impacts-recidivism.

  49Nelson L, Lind D. The school to prison pipeline, explained. Justice Policy Institute.24 February 2015. http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775.

  50Keeley J, Fields M. Case study: Appleton Central alternative charter high school’s nutrition and wellness program. December 2004. http://www.sustainlv.org/wp-content/uploads/Appleton-school-food-study.pdf.

  51Ibid.

  52Boone-Heinonen J, Gordon-Larsen P, Kiefe CI, et al. Fast food restaurants and food stores: longitudinal associations with diet in young to middle-aged adults. The Cardia study. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(13):1162–70.

  CHAPTER SIX: MAKING DESERTS GREEN AGAIN

  1The State of Obesity. Food insecure children. http://stateofobesity.org/food-insecurity/.

  2Schmitz N, Nitka D, Gariepy G, et al. Association between neighborhood-level deprivation and disability in a community sample of people with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(11):1998–2004.

  3Brownlee S, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Lloyd K, et al. New Jersey Childhood Obesity Survey. Chartbook/Camden. Rutgers University Center for State Health Policy, 2010. http://www.cshp.rutgers.edu/downloads/8640.pdf.

  4The State of Obesity. Food insecure children. http://stateofobesity.org/food-insecurity/.

  5Mari Gallagher Research and Consulting Group. Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Chicago. 2006:6–7. http://www.marigallagher.com/site_media/dynamic/project_files/Chicago_Food_Desert_Report.pdf.

  6Gardner JW, Sanborn JS. Years of potential life lost (YPLL)—what does it measure? Epidemiology. 1990;1(4):322–29.

  7Drewnowski A, Darmon N. Food choices and diet costs: an economic analysis. J Nutr. 2005;135(4):900–904.

  8Semuels A. A potato-chip-shaped hole in ex-Detroiters’ hearts. LA Times Oct 5 2014. http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-better-made-chips-20141005-story.html.

  9Lane SD, Keefe RH, Rubinstein R, et al. Structural violence, urban retail food markets, and low birth weight. Health & Place. 2008;14(3):415–23.

  10Levine TA, Grunau RE, McAuliffe FM, et al. Early childhood neurodevelopment after intrauterine growth restriction: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2015;135(1):126–41.

  11Geva R, Eshel R, Leitner Y, Valevski AF, Harel S. Neuropsychological outcome of children with intrauterine growth restriction: a 9-year prospective study. Pediatrics 2006;118(1): 91–100. doi:10.1542/peds.2005–2343; Poehlmann J, Schwichtenberg AJ, Shlafer RJ, et al. Emerging self-regulation in toddlers born preterm or low birth weight: differential susceptibility to parenting? Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23(1):177–93.

  12Rao S, Yajnik CS, Kanade A, et al. Intake of micronutrient-rich foods in rural Indian mothers is associated with the size of their babies at birth: Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Nutr. 2001;131(4):1217–24.

  13Lozoff B, Beard J, Connor J, et al. Long-lasting neural and behavioral effects of iron deficiency in infancy. Nutr Rev. 2006;64(suppl 2):S34–S43.

  14Andersson M, De Benoist B, Darnton-Hill I, et al. Iodine Deficiency in Europe: A Continuing Public Health Problem. Genva: World Health Organization Geneva, 2007.

  15Delange F. Iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage. Postgrad Med J. 2001;77(906):217–20.

  16Lee S, Leung A, He X, et al. Iodine content in fast foods: comparison between two fast-food chains in the United States. Endocr Pract. 2010: 16(6):1071–72.

  17NEMO Study Group. Effect of a 12-mo micronutrient intervention on learning and memory in well-nourished and marginally nourished school-aged children: 2 parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled studies in Australia and Indonesia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(4):1082–93.

  18Sanger-Katz M. “The Decline in Big Soda.” New York Times, 5 October 2015.

  19Campanile C. “Bloomberg Health Crusade Saved New Yorkers’ Lives.” New York Post, 11 May 2015, http://nypost.com/2015/05/11/new-yorkers-life-spans-improved-during-bloombergs-tenure-study/.

  20As of 2017; see “Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH).” NYCEDC, Financing and Incentives. https://www.nycedc.com/program/food-retail-expansion-support-health-fresh.

  21Decker H. “America’s Most Obese State Passes ‘Anti-Bloomberg Bill’ to Ban Portion Control.” National Memo, 13 March 2013. http://www.nationalmemo.com/americas-most-obese-state-passes-anti-bloomberg-bill-to-ban-portion-control/.

  22World Health Organization. Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/148114/1/9789241564854_eng.pdf?ua=1.

  23“‘Lifestyle’ Diseases Linked to Unhealthy Habits Kill Millions of People Prematurely: WHO.” Daily News, Lifestyle. 19 January 2015. http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/lifestyle-diseases-kill-millions-prematurely-article-1.2083946.

  24Ibid.

  25Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A. The contextual effect of the local food environment on residents’ diets: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(11):1761–67.

  26Wrigley N, Warm D, Margetts B, Whelan A. Assessing the impact of improved retail access on diet in a “food desert:” a preliminary report. Urban Studies. 2002;39:2061–82.

  27American Heart Association. Food Access. https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Advocate/Voices-for-Healthy-Kids–Food-Access_UCM_460609_SubHomePage.jsp.

  28For more on these efforts, see the Voices for Healthy Kids 2016 progress report, Building a Culture of Health for All Children. http://voicesforhealthykids.org/2016progressreport/.

  29A Review of Food Marketing to Children and Adolescents: Follow-Up Report. Federal Trade Commission, 2012. https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/review-food-marketing-children-and-adolescents-follow-report/121221foodmarketingreport.pdf.

  30Walsh B. “It’s Not Just Genetics.” Time. June 12, 2008. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1813984,00.html.

  31Stewart H, Hyman J, Carlson A, Frazao E. The cost of satisfying fruit and vegetable recommendations in the dietary guidelines. USDA Economic Research Service. Economic Brie
f # 27 Feb. 2016.

  32Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk. Circulation. 2014;129(25 Suppl 2):S76–99.

  CHAPTER SEVEN: FOOD FOR THE HEART AND SOUL

  1Halberg O, Johansson O. Cancer trends during the 20th century. J Aust Coll Nutr Environ Med. 2002;21(1):3–8.

  2Nguyen B, Bauman A, Gale J, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause mortality: evidence from a large Australian cohort study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2016;13:9; doi:10.1186/s12966–016–0334–5; Link LB, Potter JD. Raw versus cooked vegetables and cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13(9):1422–35; Oyebode O, Gordon-Dseagu V, Walker A, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause, cancer and CVD mortality: analysis of Health Survey for England data. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68(9):856–62; doi:10.1136/jech-2013–203500.

  3World Cancer Research Fund International. Our cancer prevention recommendations. http://www.wcrf.org/int/research-we-fund/our-cancer-prevention-recommendations.

  4Orlich MJ, Singh PN, Sabaté J, et al. Vegetarian dietary patterns and mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. AMA Intern Med. 2013;173(13):1230–38; Li D. Effect of the vegetarian diet on non-communicable diseases. J Sci Food Agric. 2014;94(2):169–73.

  5Hightower JM, Moore D. Mercury levels in high-end consumers of fish. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(4):604–8; Mahaffey KR, Clickner RP, Bodurow CC. Blood organic mercury and dietary mercury intake: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999 and 2000. Environ Health Perspect. 112(5):562–70.

  6Stripp C, Overvad K, Christensen J, et al. Fish intake is positively associated with breast cancer incidence rate. J Nutr. 2003;133(11):3664–69.

  7Guillén MD, Uriarte PS. Aldehydes contained in edible oils of a very different nature after prolonged heating at frying temperature: presence of toxic oxygenated αβ, unsaturated aldehydes. Food Chem. 2012;131(3):915; doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.079; Marnett LJ. Oxy radicals, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Toxicology. 2002;181–182:219–22.

  8Linos E, Willet WC, Cho E, Frazier L. Adolescent diet in relation to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010;19(3):689–96.

  9Michels KB, Rosner BA, Chumlea WC, et al. Preschool diet and adult risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(3):749–54.

  10Alkaabi JM, Al-Dabbagh B, Ahmad S, et al. Glycemic indices of five varieties of dates in healthy and diabetic subjects. Nutr J. 2011;10:59.

  CHAPTER NINE: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

  1Fortmann SP, Burda BU, Senger CA, et al. Vitamin and mineral supplements in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: an updated systematic evidence review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(120):824–34; Grodstein F, O’Brien J, Kang JH, et al. Long-term multivitamin supplementation and cognitive function in men: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(12):806–14.

  2Manshadi S, Ishiguro L, Sohn K, et al. Folic Acid Supplementation Promotes Mammary Tumor Progression in a Rat Model. PLoS One. January 21, 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084635.

  3Charles D, Ness AR, Campbell D, et al. Taking folate in pregnancy and the risk of maternal breast cancer. BMJ. 2004;329(7479):1375–76.

  4Larsson SC, Akesson A, Bergkvist L, et al. Multivitamin use and breast cancer incidence in a prospective cohort of Swedish women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1268–72.

  5Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Chang SC, Leitzmann MF, et al. Folate intake, alcohol use, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:895–904.

  6Fife J, Raniga S, Hider PN, et al. Folic acid supplementation and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis. 2011;13(2):132–37; Baggott JE, Oster RA, Tamura T. Meta-analysis of cancer risk in folic acid supplementation trials. Cancer Epidemiol. 2012;36(1):78–81.

  7Figueiredo JC, Grau MV, Haile RW, et al. Folic acid and risk of prostate cancer: results from a randomized clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:432–35.

  8Wien TN, Pike E, Wisloff T, et al. Cancer risk with folic acid supplements: a systemic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2012;2(1):e000653; doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011–000653.

  9Haberg SE, London SJS, Stigum H, et al. Folic acid supplements in pregnancy and early childhood respiratory health. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94(3):180–84.

  10Raghaven R, Riley A, Caruso DM, et al. Maternal plasma folate, vitamin B12 levels and multivitamin supplement during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in the Boston Birth Cohort. Paper presented at the International Society of Autism Research meeting, Baltimore, 13 May 2016.

  11Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S, Howe G, et al. An international case-control study of maternal diet during pregnancy and childhood brain tumor risk: a histology-specific analysis by food group. Ann Epidemiol. 2009;19:148–60; Kwan ML, Jensen CD, Block G, et al. Maternal diet and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Public Health Rep. 2009;124:503–14; Petridou E, Ntouvelis E, Dessypris N, et al. Maternal diet and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in young children. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:1935–39; Jensen CD, Block G, Buffler P, et al. Maternal dietary risk factors in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 2004;15:559–70.

  12Bjelkaovic G, Nikolava D, Gluud LL, et al. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention. JAMA. 2007;297:842–57.

  13Melhus H, Michaelson K, Kindmark A, et al. Excessive dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with reduced bone mineral density and increased risk of hip fracture. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129(10):770–78.

  14Oregon State University, Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center. Vitamin A. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminA/. Last updated January 2015.

  15Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, et al. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Re. 2012;3:CD007176; doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2.

  16Barnett JB, Hamer DH, Meydani SN. Low zinc status: a new risk factor for pneumonia in the elderly? Nutr Rev. 2010;68:30–37; Meydani SN, Barnett JB, Dallal GE, et al. Serum zinc and pneumonia in nursing home elderly. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:1167–73; Prasad AS, Beck FW, Bao B, et al. Zinc supplementation decreases incidence of infections in the elderly: effect of zinc on generation of cytokines and oxidative stress. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:837–44; Barnett JB, Dao MC, Hamer DH, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on serum zinc concentration and T cell proliferation in nursing home elderly: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103:942–51.

  17Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, et al. Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women’s Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011:342:d2040; Bolland MJ, Avenell A, Baron JA, et al. Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;341:c3691.

  18Reid IR, Bolland MJ, Grey A. Does calcium supplementation increase cardiovascular risk? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010;74(6):689–95.

  19Holick MF. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:1678S–88S; Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, et al. Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;1:CD007470.

  20Rossini M, Gatti D, Viapiana O, et al. Short-term effects on bone turnover markers of a single high dose of oral vitamin D(3). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:E622–26; Zheng YT, Cui QQ, Hong YM, Yao WG. A meta-analysis of high dose, intermittent vitamin D supplementation among older adults. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0115850.

  21Foster M, Chu A, Petocz P, Samman S. Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in humans.
J Sci Food Agric. 2013;93: 2362–71; Hunt JR. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:633S–39S; Miller LV, Krebs NF, Hambidge KM. A mathematical model of zinc absorption in humans as a function of dietary zinc and phytate. J Nutr. 2007;137:135–41.

  22Prasad AS, Fitzgerald JT, Hess JW, et al. Zinc deficiency in elderly patients. Nutrition. 1993;9:218–24; Pepersack T, Rotsaert P, Benoit F, et al. Prevalence of zinc deficiency and its clinical relevance among hospitalised elderly. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2001;33:243–53.

  23Beulens JW, Booth SL, van den Heuvel EG, et al. The role of menaquinones (vitamin K(2)) in human health. Br J Nutr. 2013;110:1357–68; Cockayne S, Adamson J, Lanham-New S, et al. Vitamin K and the prevention of fractures: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1256–61.

  24Sarter B, Kelsey KS, Schwartz TA, Harris WS. Blood docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in vegans: Associations with age and gender and effects of an algal-derived omega-3 fatty acid supplement. Clinical Nutrition 2015 >34(2):212-18.

  25Pottala JV, Yaff K, Robinson JG, et al. Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes. Neurology. 2014;82(5):435–42.

  26Pena-Rosas JP, De-Regil LM, Garcia-Casal MN, et al. Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;12:CD004736; Scholl TO. Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:1218S–22S; Song QY, Luo WP, Zhang CX. High serum iron level is associated with an increased risk of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutr Res. 2015;35:1060–69.

  27Mei Z, Cogswell ME, Looker AC, et al. Assessment of iron status in US pregnant women from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2006. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:1312–20.

  28Murray-Kolb LE, Beard JL. Iron deficiency and child and maternal health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:946S–50S; Armony-Sivan R, Kaplan-Estrin M, Jacobson SW, et al. Iron-deficiency anemia in infancy and mother-infant interaction during feeding. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2010;31:326–32; Lozoff B, Georgieff MK. Iron deficiency and brain development. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2006;13:158–65; Gautam CS, Saha L, Sekhri K, et al. Iron deficiency in pregnancy and the rationality of iron supplements prescribed during pregnancy. Medscape J Med. 2008;10:283.