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attack (first stage of war), 15, 20–66
Alexander in, 48–52
Caesar in, 60–66
Hannibal in, 53–60
attrition, strategy of (Fabian strategy), 16–17, 87–89, 92, 101, 105–6, 108, 109, 122, 132, 163, 165–66, 173, 183, 243
pitched battle vs., 143–44, 183, 236
audacity:
of Alexander, 1, 5, 9, 30, 76, 81, 115, 141–42, 172, 202, 235, 238–39, 248
of Caesar, 3, 5, 9, 19, 30, 60, 92, 95, 103, 138, 139, 141–42, 235, 238, 246, 247, 248
of Hannibal, 2, 5, 9, 26, 30, 37, 84, 141–42, 216, 230, 235, 238, 242, 248
Aufidus (Ofanto) River, 107, 122, 123
Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 5, 228–29, 231, 249
Autophradates, 73
Aztecs, 30
Babylon, 109, 112, 203, 204, 207, 240
Bactria, 111, 116, 151, 152, 156, 160, 161, 207
Baecula, Battle of (208 B.C.), 167, 209
Bagradas (Medjerda) River, 213
Bahrain, 202
Barca family, 25, 40, 45
Barsine, 80, 206
Bessus, satrap of Bactria, xv, 111, 113, 116, 117, 119, 151, 156–57, 189, 191
Bithynia, 220
Bocchus, King of Mauretania, 182
branding, 13–14
Alexander’s use of, 13, 22, 44, 116, 231, 235, 248
Caesar’s use of, 13–14, 45, 231, 235, 248
Hannibal’s use of, 13, 43–44, 84, 168–69, 231, 235, 242, 248
British army, at Dunkirk, 91
Brundisium, 68, 91–93, 97, 100, 143
Bruttium, 168
Brutus, Marcus, 225, 226, 227–29
Burebista, King of Dacia, 224
Caesar, Gaius Julius, xviii, 189
Adriatic crossing by, 98–99, 246
African War of, 180–85, 190, 246, 247
agility of, 10, 30, 38, 45, 95, 103, 139, 141, 144, 147, 191, 245
in Alexandria, 10, 17, 178–79, 246
ambition of, 7, 27, 235, 248
army’s loyalty to, 37–38, 97, 98, 135, 182–83, 247
arrogance of, 19, 226–27, 247
assassination of, 4, 10, 196, 225–27, 247
in attempted peace negotiations, 99
audacity of, 3, 5, 9, 19, 30, 60, 92, 95, 103, 138, 139, 141–42, 144, 235, 238, 246, 247, 248
bodyguard dismissed by, 226, 247
branding of, 13–14, 45, 231, 235, 248
at Brundisium, 68, 92–93
celebrity of, 14
clemency as policy of, 63–64, 96, 97, 226, 227, 245, 247, 249
Cleopatra and, 147, 178–79, 222
at Corfinium, 61–63, 65, 95, 172
as dictator for life, 222–23
divine honors conferred on, 14, 27, 222
Divine Providence and, 14, 175, 177, 181, 235, 246, 248
domination of Rome as goal of, 27, 46, 176, 221–23, 236
in Dyrrachium campaign, 2–3, 99–104, 105–6, 130, 247
in eastern Mediterranean, 179–80
as field commander, 2–4, 30, 180–82, 220, 247
funeral of, 233–34
Gaul conquered by, 4, 7, 11, 13, 18, 27, 45, 245
judgment of, 7–8, 30, 47, 65, 95, 141, 144–45, 248
leadership of, 8, 95, 103, 144, 176, 247
legacy of, 18, 196, 230–31
lessons learned by, 105–6
logistics as weakness of, 7, 10, 181, 188, 247
long-term thinking of, 12
as military strategist, 4, 11–12, 30, 37–39, 94, 95, 103, 190, 230, 246, 248
money and supplies for, 147, 179–80, 191, 247
at Munda, 186–87, 215, 220, 247
at Pharsalus, see Pharsalus, Battle of
pitched battle as goal of, 108, 183
planned Parthian campaign of, 4, 29, 223–25
political enemies of, 27, 46, 220–21
political reforms of, 185, 223, 227, 231, 246
political shrewdness of, 27, 37–38, 45–46, 63–64, 96, 99, 176, 181, 188, 196, 231, 245, 247
as political strategist, 45–47, 95, 101, 215, 245
on Pompey, 31, 38, 47, 65, 102–3
Pompey’s capture as goal of, 176, 190
Pompey’s naval superiority to, 29, 39, 40, 94, 96, 101
Pompey’s Spanish forces defeated by, 94–96, 97, 104
populist policies of, 46, 223, 227, 234, 246
reasons for going to war, 13–14, 18, 26–29, 46, 64, 221
as rebel against legitimate government, 40
reputation (dignitas) as important to, 13–14, 29, 221, 225–27, 246
Rubicon crossed by, 5, 19, 20–21, 38, 46, 98, 221
self-confidence of, 27, 245
siegecraft mastered by, 38, 172, 190
as sole commander of his army, 47
surprise as tactic of, 10, 12, 47, 60, 98, 137, 173
as tactician, 181–82, 188, 246–47
terror as tactic of, 12, 13, 45, 132, 144, 235, 248
at Thapsus, 183–84, 186, 191, 247
triumphs of, 179, 185, 195–96
see also Civil War, Roman (49–45 B.C.)
Caesarion (Ptolemy XV), 179, 222, 229
Callisthenes, 154–55
Cannae, Battle of (216 B.C.), 2, 4, 14, 19, 107, 108, 120–29, 134, 143, 144–45, 147, 163–64, 168, 169, 196, 198, 209, 216, 236, 243, 248
casualties in, 120, 128–29, 141
map, 121
Roman superiority of numbers at, 122, 123–24
Cannae, citadel of, 122, 123
Canusium, 122, 129, 171–72
Capua, 164, 166
Carrhae, Battle of (53 B.C.), 223–24
Carthage, 203
as not knowing when to stop, 209
in peace with Rome, 218
political infighting in, 8, 35, 39–40, 44–45, 190–91, 212
Roman enmity toward, 4, 26
scattershot strategies of, 165, 174, 190, 243
Scipio Africanus’s first peace treaty repudiated by, 208–9, 212
Spanish colonies of, see Spain, Carthaginian colonies in
see also First Punic War; Second Punic War
Carthaginian army:
at Cannae, 120, 122, 124–29
cavalry of, 10, 34–35, 57, 59, 107, 124, 125–26, 128, 174, 213, 216–17, 242
Celts in, 84–85, 86, 90, 107, 125, 126–27, 128, 167, 216
desertions from, 54–55
experience and professionalism of, 34–35
infantry of, 34–35, 124, 125, 126–28, 213, 216–17, 242
lack of food and supplies for, 55, 85, 87, 166
Libyans in, 34, 125, 127–28
makeup of, 34–35
morale of, 192
reinforcements needed for, 55, 65, 86, 87, 90, 146–47, 164–65, 167, 170–71, 174–75, 190, 191, 192
Spaniards in, 125, 126–27, 128, 216
at Ticinus River, 57–58, 122
at Trasimene, 85–86, 122
at Trebia River, 58–60
Carthaginian navy, 36, 67–68, 89, 90, 164, 165
Carthalo, 168
Caspian Sea, 203
Cassius Longinus, Gaius, 225, 227–29
Cassius Longinus, Lucius, 132
Cato, Marcus Porcius, xvii, 61, 175, 184–85, 189, 226, 227
Caunus, 72
cavalry:
Carthaginian, 10, 34–35, 57, 59, 107, 124, 125–26, 128, 174, 213, 216–17, 242
Macedonian, 1, 10, 31–32, 42, 50, 51–53, 76, 77–79, 111, 112, 114–15, 117–18, 153, 158, 159–60
Numidian, 57, 59, 125, 181, 210–11, 212–13, 216–17, 247
Persian, 33, 51–52, 76, 77, 107, 111, 112, 113–14, 116–18, 119, 141
Roman (Caesar), 96, 135–36, 138, 181, 186, 187
Roman (Pompeian), 108, 136–37, 138, 141, 181, 183, 186
Roman (Punic Wars), 86, 123–24, 141, 210, 213, 216–17
Thessalian, 51, 52, 78, 79, 114, 117–18
Celts, of northern Ital
y, 34, 56
in Carthaginian army, 84–85, 86, 90, 107, 125, 126–27, 128, 167, 216
Hannibal’s alliances with, 44, 58, 173
Central Asia, 33, 111, 119
Chaeronea, Battle of (338 B.C.), 11, 42, 51
chariots, scythed, 111–12, 113–14, 116–17
Chios, 72, 81
Christians, Alexander and, 17
Churchill, Winston, 72, 93, 196
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, xvii, 28, 29, 63, 64, 101–2, 133, 184, 226, 228
Cilicia, 75
Cisalpine Gaul, 46
Civil War, Roman (49–45 B.C.), 2–3, 4, 20–21, 38, 39
attack phase of, 60–66
Caesar’s reasons for starting, 13–14, 18, 26–29, 46
clash phase of, see Pharsalus, Battle of
closing the net in, 147–48, 175–92, 236
map, xxiv–xxv
resistance phase of, 68, 91–106
Civil War, The (Caesar), 18, 29
clash (third stage of war), 15, 107–45
Alexander in, see Gaugamela, Battle of
Caesar in, see Pharsalus, Battle of
Hannibal in, see Cannae, Battle of
Clastidium (Casteggio), 56, 58
Cleitus “the Black,” 1, 51, 154
Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt, xvii, 177
Antony and, 229
Caesar and, 147, 178–79, 222
closing the net (fourth stage of war), 15
Alexander and, 146, 148–63, 188–92, 236, 239
Caesar and, 147–48, 175–92, 236
Hannibal and, 146–47, 163–75, 188–92, 236
Cnidus, 72
Coenus, 159, 161
commanders, great:
early deaths of, 18
failure as constant possibility for, 18, 235
humility lacking in, 19
intelligence of, 7, 30
modern vs. ancient, 18–19
ten keys to success of, 5–14; see also agility; ambition; audacity; branding; Divine Providence; infrastructure; judgment; leadership; strategy; terror
Commentaries on the Gallic War (Caesar), 14, 18, 45
common touch, as quality of great commanders, 8
Companion Cavalry, 1, 10, 31, 53, 77, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 153, 159, 202
Corcyra (Corfu), 175
Corfinium, siege of (49 B.C.), 61–63, 65, 92, 95, 172
Cornelia (Pompey’s wife), 177
Cortés, Hernando, 30
Cortona, 85
Cos, 81
counterattack, anticipation of, 15
counterinsurgency tactics, Alexander’s use of, 10
Crassus, Marcus Licinius, 28
Craterus, xv, 155
Cremona, 56
Crete, 81
Croton, 194–95
Curio, 94, 96, 106, 175
Cyprus, 207
Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, 162, 240
Damascus, 80
Daniel, Book of, 204–5
Dardanelles, see Hellespont
Darius III, King of Persia, xv, 33, 48–49, 69, 70, 72, 74, 79, 81, 98, 105, 108, 147, 148, 189, 238
Alexander’s pursuit of, 150, 191
assassination of, 150, 156, 160
at Gaugamela, 109, 113–19, 141, 142, 144–45
at Issus, 74–78, 109
in peace offers to Alexander, 81–82
dignitas (reputation), importance of, 13–14, 29, 221, 225–27, 246
Divine Providence, 14, 144
Alexander and, 14, 73, 95, 105, 235, 238, 239, 248
Caesar and, 14, 175, 177, 181, 235, 246, 248
Hannibal and, 14, 129, 167–68, 244, 248
Dolabella, 101–2
Domitius Ahenobarbus, Lucius, xvii, 61–63, 65, 94–95, 96, 133, 136, 140, 226
Domitius Calvinus, Lucius, 132, 136
Dunkirk, 91, 93
Dyrrachium, 2–3, 92, 93, 99–104, 105–6, 108, 130, 132, 134, 144, 175, 247
Ebro River, 67–68, 90
Ecbatana (Hamadan), 150, 153, 204
education, of great commanders, 7
Education of Cyrus, The (Xenophon), 22
Egnatia, via, 99, 132
Egypt, 33, 83, 109, 112, 177–79, 207, 239
Eighth Legion, 136
elephants:
of Darius, 111, 113
of Hannibal, 20, 35, 54, 60, 174, 217
of Hasdrubal, 167
of Metellus Scipio, 183–84
of Porus, 158–60, 217
eloquent gestures, as mastered by great commanders, 8
Emilia, 84
Emporiae, 89
Enipeus River, 134, 135
Ephesus, 244
Epirus (Albania), 2, 99, 190
Erigyius of Mytilene, 156
Etruria (Tuscany), 84, 85
Etruscans, 86–87
Euphrates River, 112
Fabius Maximus Verucosus, Quintus, xvii, 91, 142, 210
limited authority of, 88
strategy of, 87–89, 92, 105, 108, 122, 134, 143, 144, 163, 165–66, 183, 243
failures and setbacks, rebounding from, 9, 16, 68–69, 95–96, 103, 106, 108, 235
Favonius, Marcus, 133
First Punic War (264–241 B.C.), 4, 23, 25, 36, 173
Flaminius, Gaius, xvi, 85–86
Florus, 89
Fourteenth Legion, 182
France:
in Algerian War, 16
Nazi invasion of, 91
Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), 68
Freud, Sigmund, 18
Frontinus, 138
Gallic War, The (Caesar), 14, 18, 45
Ganges River Valley, 160
Gaugamela, Battle of (331 B.C.), 107, 108, 142, 144–45, 147, 148, 198, 239
casualties in, 118–19, 141
lunar eclipse before, 109, 113
map, 110
Gaul, Caesar’s conquest of, 4, 7, 11, 13, 18, 45, 245
gay-rights activists, Alexander and, 17
Gaza, 83
Gebze, 234–35
Gedrosian Desert, 162
Genoa, 146
Germany, Nazi, 91
Gerunium, 89, 91
Gomel River, 113
Gomphi, 12, 130, 134
Gordium, 73, 75, 90
governance, Alexander’s lack of interest in, 7–8, 10, 197–99, 202, 230–31, 238, 240, 249
grand strategy, 11, 12
Granicus River, Battle of (334 B.C.), 1, 48–52, 69, 134
Great Plains, Battle of the (203 B.C.), 211
Greek city-states:
after Alexander’s death, 207
Persian invasion of (480 B.C.), 40–41, 53, 82, 149
in revolt of 331 B.C., 74, 151–52
threat of rebellion by, 40, 41, 42–43, 70, 74, 80, 82, 201
guerrilla warfare, 16–17
Hadrumetum (Sousse), 211–12, 218
Halicarnassus, Persian recapture of, 81
Halicarnassus, siege of (334 B.C.), 67, 72, 104
Hamilcar Barca, xvi, 7, 11, 23, 25, 34
Hannibal, xvi, 104, 189
agility of, 10, 30, 34, 89, 129, 141, 144, 191
ambition of, 6–7, 235, 248
army of, see Carthaginian army
Atatürk’s memorial for, 234–35
attack on Rome rejected by, 163–64, 169–70, 175, 243
audacity of, 2, 5, 9, 26, 30, 37, 84, 141–42, 144, 216, 230, 235, 238, 242, 248
branding of, 13, 43–44, 84, 168–69, 231, 235, 242, 248
breakup of Roman confederacy as strategy of, 37, 40, 44, 60, 83, 88, 163–64, 172–73, 190, 242
at Cannae, see Cannae, Battle of
Carthaginian politics and, 8, 39–40, 44–45, 190–91, 212
Celtic alliances of, 44, 58, 173
childhood of, 23
classical historians on, 23, 24–25
at Croton, 194–95
Divine Providence and, 14, 129, 167–68, 244, 248
early military career of, 43
> elephants of, 20, 35, 54, 60, 174, 217
in escape from Campania, 88–89
eye infection of, 84
as field commander, 2, 3–4, 30, 55, 212, 235, 241, 248
first-rate commanders lacked by, 90–91, 105, 106
infrastructure weaknesses of, 91, 166, 210
Italian base lacked by, 83–84, 91
Italy invaded by, 4, 5, 19, 20–21, 53–60, 84
judgment of, 7–8, 30–31, 65, 129, 141, 144–45, 171, 230
leadership of, 8–9, 54–55, 85, 87, 144, 170, 241, 248
legacy of, 18, 196, 230–32
lessons learned by, 105, 125
long-term thinking lacked by, 12, 242
manpower lacked by, 55, 65, 86, 87, 90, 146–47, 164–65, 167, 170–71, 174–75, 190, 191, 192, 210, 230, 242
map of campaigns, xxii–xxiii
as military strategist, 4, 11–12, 30, 34–37, 56, 163–64, 168–70, 172–75, 190–91, 230, 235, 242, 248
navy lacked by, 29
in North Africa, 211–18, 241
peace proposals of, 168–69, 171
pitched battle as goal of, 108, 183
as political reformer, 219, 248
as political strategist, 43–45, 58, 214–15, 231–32, 242
postwar career of, 219–20
quick victory needed by, 168, 173–74, 243
reasons for going to war, 13, 23–26, 64
Scipio Africanus’s meeting with, 213–15, 232, 244
siegecraft ignored by, 7, 10, 170–72, 190, 191, 242
southern Italian alliances of, 163–64, 173
in southern Italy, 166, 168, 211
Spain as base for, 39, 68, 69, 105, 167, 241
as statesman, 3–4, 44, 55, 215, 244, 248
suicide of, 220
surprise and deception employed by, 11–12, 17, 56, 59, 85, 89, 124, 129, 166, 169, 172, 217, 242
tactical mastery of, 31, 34–35, 55, 57, 125, 129, 235, 241, 242, 248
terror as tactic of, 13, 144, 235, 248
at Ticinus River, 57–58, 90, 122, 167
at Trasimene, 85–86, 90, 122, 169
at Trebia River, 58–60, 90, 122, 242
vanity of, 19
at Zama, 215–18, 242
see also Second Punic War (218–201 B.C.)
Hannibal “the Gladiator,” 54
Hanno, 90, 126, 128
Harpalus, 153, 200–201
Hasdrubal (cavalry commander), 125–26, 128
Hasdrubal (Hannibal’s brother), xvi, 23, 35, 44, 54, 67–68, 89–90, 106, 167–68, 209, 230
Hasdrubal Gisgo, 209
Hasdrubal “the Handsome,” 25
Hellenistic Era, 207, 236, 249
Hellespont (Dardanelles), Alexander’s crossing of, 5, 20–21, 41, 48, 98, 104
Hephaestion, xv, 118, 155, 199, 204
Heracles (Alexander’s son), 206
Hera Lacinia, temple of, 194–95
Hercules, 43–44, 242
Hindu Kush, 157
Hitler, Adolf, 30
horme (drive), 6