Pushout

by Monique W. Morris

  32. Leticia Smith-Evans, Janel George, Fatima Goss-Graves, Lara Kaufmann, and Lauren Frohlich, Unlocking Opportunities for African American Girls: A Call to Action for Educational Equity (New York: NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, 2014), 7.

  33. Kimberlé Crenshaw, Priscilla Ocen, and Jyoti Nanda, Black Girls Matter: Pushed-Out, Over-Policed, and Under-Protected (New York: African American Policy Forum and the Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies, 2015).

  34. Jeremy White, “California Bill Curbing ‘Willful Defiance’ Suspensions Opens School Discipline Debate,” Sacramento Bee, August 16, 2014.

  35. Chicago Public Schools, “Stats and Facts,” 2015, http://cps.edu/About_CPS/At-a-glance/Pages/Stats_and_facts.aspx.

  36. Ibid. Statistics have been rounded to the nearest whole number.

  37. U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Right Database, “Discipline of Students Without Disabilities—Referral to Law Enforcement. Survey Year: 2011,” accessed April 10, 2015, http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Page?t=d&eid=32906&syk=6&pid=861.

  38. Matthew Steinberg, Elaine Allensworth, and David W. Johnson, “Student and Teacher Safety in Chicago Public Schools: The Roles of Community Context and Social Organization,” University of Chicago, 2015, http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/publications/student-and-teacher-safety-chicago-public-schools-roles-community-context-and-school.

  39. W. David Stevens, Lauren Sartain, Elaine M. Allensworth, and Rachel Levenstein with Shannon Guiltinan, Nick Mader, Michelle Hanh Huynh, and Shanette Porter, Discipline Practices in Chicago Schools Trends in the Use of Suspensions and Arrests (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research, 2015), 13–14.

  40. Ibid.

  41. See “The Chicago Race Riot of 1919,” History.com, http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/chicago-race-riot-of-1919.

  42. Ibid.

  43. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 247.

  44. Nathan James and Gail McCallion, School Resource Officers: Law Enforcement Officers in Schools (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2013), 2, 3.

  45. Ibid., 9.

  46. U.S. Department of Justice, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin: Addressing School Violence (Washington, DC: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011).

  47. Public Agenda, Teaching Interrupted: Do Discipline Policies in Today’s Public Schools Foster the Common Good? (New York: Public Agenda, 2004).

  48. Simone Robers, Anlan Zhang, Rachel Morgan, and Lauren Musu-Gillette, Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2014 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs, 2015).

  49. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2013 (NCES 2014-042) (Washington, DC: Department of Education, 2014).

  50. Chongmin Na and Denise C. Gottfredson, “Police Officers in Schools: Effects on School Crime and the Processing of Offending Behaviors,” Justice Quarterly 30, no. 4 (2013), doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.615754.

  51. See Kathleen Nolan, Police in the Hallways: Discipline in an Urban High School (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

  52. Ibid., 59–62.

  53. Ibid.

  54. Roberts et al., Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2014, 22.

  55. Chicago Public School, Student Code of Conduct, 2014, http://cps.edu/SiteCollectionDocuments/SCC_StudentCodeConduct_English.pdf.

  56. Ibid., 34.

  57. Ibid., 10.

  58. Barbara Norvell Hall, “An Examination of the Effects of Recess on First Graders’ Use of Written Symbol Representations” (PhD diss., Auburn University, 2006); Jennifer R. Cady, “A Qualitative Case Study on the Impact of Recess and In-Class Breaks, in the American Public Schools, Through the Eyes of Elementary School Administrators, Teachers, and Students” (PhD diss., Capella University, 2009).

  59. Olga Jarrett, “A Research-Based Case for Recess,” Georgia State University, 2013, http://usplaycoalition.clemson.edu/resources/articles/13.11.5_Recess_final_online.pdf.

  60. Laura Ann Wurzburger, “Recess Policy in Chicago Public Schools: 1855–2006” (master’s thesis, Loyola University Chicago, 2010).

  61. Jarrett, “Research-Based Case for Recess,” 2013.

  62. Nicholas Day, “The Rebirth of Recess: How Do You Introduce Recess to Kids Who Have Never Left the Classroom?,” Slate, August 29, 2012.

  63. See Jarrett, “Research-Based Case for Recess.”

  64. Jamilia Blake, Betty Butler, Chance Lewis, and Alicia Darensbourg, “Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Educational Stakeholders,” Urban Review 43, no. 1 (2011): 90–106. See also Monique W. Morris, Race, Gender, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls (New York: African American Policy Forum, 2012).

  65. Danielle Dreilinger, “New Orleans Public Schools Pre-Katrina and Now, by the Numbers,” Times-Picayune, August 29, 2014.

  66. Ibid.

  67. Ibid.

  68. “Tulsa School Sends Girl Home Over Hair,” Fox23.com, September 6, 2013, http://www.fox23.com/news/local/story/Tulsa-school-sends-girl-home-over-hair/sGcEwBSrm02W8ZSBNnGoXQ.cspx.

  69. Shaun Chaiyabhat, “African-American Girl Faces Expulsion over ‘Natural Hair’: Vanessa VanDyke Told to Cut Hair or Leave School,” Local10.com, December 24, 2013, http://www.local10.com/news/africanamerican-girl-faces-expulsion-over-natural-hair/-/1717324/23165492/-/eo6hiz/-/index.html.

  3. Jezebel in the Classroom

  1. Laura Murphy and Brian Ea, “The Louisiana Human Trafficking Report,” Modern Slavery Project, Loyola University, New Orleans, 2014, http://admin.loyno.edu/webteam/userfiles/file/LA%20HT%20Report%20final.pdf.

  2. Ibid., 11.

  3. Nihal Shrinath, Vicki Mack, and Allison Plyer, “Who Lives in New Orleans and Metro Parishes Now?,” Data Center, New Orleans, 2014, http://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/who-lives-in-new-orleans-now.

  4. Malika Saada Saar, Rebecca Epstein, Lindsay Rosenthal, and Yasmin Vafa, The Sexual Abuse to Prison Pipeline: The Girls’ Story (Washington, DC: Human Rights Project for Girls and Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality, 2015).

  5. Office for Crime Victims, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, NCVW Resource Guide: Human Trafficking (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2013).

  6. H.E.A.T. Watch, Alameda County District Attorney’s Office, “About Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children,” n.d., http://www.heat-watch.org/human_trafficking/about_csec.

  7. Adaku Onyeka-Crawford, “New NWLC and LDF Report: African American Teen Mothers Need Support, Not Shaming,” National Women’s Law Center Blog, September 29, 2014, http://www.nwlc.org/our-blog/new-nwlc-and-ldf-report-african-american-teen-mothers-need-support-not-shaming.

  8. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES) (Washington, DC: Department of Education, 2007), http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012026/tables/table_35.asp.

  9. Gerda Lerner, ed., Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Vintage Books, 1972), 163.

  10. The Independent, September 18, 1902, in ibid., 166–69.

  11. Fannie Barrier Williams, “A Northern Negro’s Autobiography,” The Independent, July 14, 1904, in Lerner, Black Women in White America, 164–66.

  12. “Jezebel” is a term that refers to a sexually promiscuous and seductive woman. Biblical characterizations of the biblical figure Jezebel as a sinner and wicked woman provided a narrative proxy for the perceived immorality of Black women. As discussed throughout the book, the deviance of the Black woman has been rooted in denigrating her sexuality, a practice that was developed and nurtured by the institution of slavery. Over time, the term jezebel has been used to shame and degrade Black women’s sexual i
dentity, rendering it immoral.

  13. Stella Dawson, “U.S. Courts Deny Trafficking Victims Lost Wages: Study,” Reuters, October 1, 2014.

  14. Monique W. Morris, “Black Girls for Sale,” Ebony.com, May 19, 2014.

  15. Mike Kessler, “Gone Girls: Human Trafficking on the Home Front,” Los Angeles Magazine, October 14, 2014.

  16. Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network, “Who Are the Victims: Breakdown by Gender and Age,” 2009, https://www.rainn.org/get-information/statistics/sexual-assault-victims. A study by the Black Women’s Blueprint found that 60 percent of Black girls have experienced sexual assault before turning eighteen. See http://blackwomensblueprint.org/sexual-violence/.

  17. Astrid Goh, “Chicago: A National Hub for Human Trafficking,” Youth Project, January 22, 2014, http://www.chicago-bureau.org/chicago-national-hub-human-trafficking.

  18. National Association of Elementary School Principals, National Survey of School Leaders Reveals 2013 School Uniform Trends (Alexandria, VA: NAESP, 2013).

  19. Ibid.

  20. “The Race Problem—An Autobiography by a Southern Colored Woman,” The Independent, March 17, 1904, 587–89, in Lerner, Black Women in White America, 158.

  21. Statistics from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, ECS, NAESP, University of Florida, 2015, http://www.statisticbrain.com/school-uniform-statistic.

  4. Learning on Lockdown

  1. Francine T. Sherman and Annie Balck, Gender Injustice: System-Level Juvenile Justice Reform for Girls (Portland, OR: National Crittenton Foundation, 2015).

  2. Annie E. Casey Foundation, Reducing Youth Incarceration in the United States (Baltimore, MD, 2013).

  3. Sherman and Balck, Gender Injustice.

  4. A status offense is an offense that is determined illegal due to the status of the person committing the “crime.” For people who are under the age of eighteen, for example, status offenses include runaway and truancy—“offenses” that are associated with their status as children, not their threat to public safety.

  5. Sherman and Balck, Gender Injustice.

  6. Barry Holman and Jason Ziedenberg, The Dangers of Detention: The Impact of Incarcerating Youth in Detention and Other Secure Facilities (Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute, 2011), http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/06-11_rep_dangersofdetention_jj.pdf.

  7. Chandlee Johnson Kuhn, “Gender Disparities in the Juvenile Justice System,” Coalition for Juvenile Justice blog, October 23, 2013, http://juvjustice.org/blog/598.

  8. Leslie Acoca and Kelly Dedel, No Place to Hide: Understanding and Meeting the Needs of Girls in the California Juvenile Justice System (San Francisco, CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1998).

  9. Sanford Fox, “Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective,” Stanford Law Review 22, no. 6 (1970): 1187–239.

  10. Geoff K. Ward, The Black Child-Savers: Racial Democracy and Juvenile Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 52.

  11. Ibid., 56.

  12. Alana Barton, Fragile Moralities and Dangerous Sexualities: Two Centuries of Semi-Penal Institutionalisation for Women (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 34–36.

  13. Ward, Black Child-Savers.

  14. Mary White Ovington, Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York (New York: Longmans, Green, 1911), 67–68.

  15. Ibid., 190.

  16. Ibid., 190–91.

  17. Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 133–34.

  18. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).

  19. Russ Immarigeon, “Delinquent Girls Need to Farm,” Prison Memory Project, October 30, 2014, http://www.prisonpublicmemory.org/blog/2014/delinquent-girls-need-to-farm.

  20. Ward, Black Child-Savers, 47.

  21. E. Franklin Frazier, Rebellious Youth: The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), in African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice, ed. Shaun Gabbidon, Helen Taylor Greene, and Vernetta Young (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002), 99.

  22. Nina Bernstein, “Ward of the State: The Gap in Ella Fitzgerald’s Life,” New York Times, June 23, 1996.

  23. Ruzz Immarigeon, “The ‘Ungovernable’ Ella Fitzgerald,” Public Prison Memory Project, October 29, 2014, http://prisonpublicmemory.org/blog/2014/02/ungovernable-ella-fitzgerald.

  24. Ibid. See also Bernstein, “Ward of the State.”

  25. Ward, Black Child-Savers, 88–91.

  26. Vernetta Young, “Gender Expectations and Their Impact on Black Female Offenders and Victims,” Justice Quarterly 3, no. 3 (1986): 305–27.

  27. Melissa Sickmund, Anthony Sladky, Wei Kang, and Charles Puzzanchera, Easy Access to the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2015).

  28. Ibid.

  29. Center for Children’s Law and Policy, “Understanding OJJDP Survey of Conditions of Confinement in Juvenile Facilities, Fact Sheet,” August 3, 2010, http://www.cclp.org/documents/Conditions/Fact%20Sheet%20-%20OJJDP%20Survey-%20Conditions%20of%20Confinement.pdf.

  30. Bonita Veysey, Adolescent Girls with Mental Health Disorders Involved in the Juvenile Justice System (Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice, 2003).

  31. Monique W. Morris, “Representing the Educational Experiences of Black Girls in a Juvenile Court School,” Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk 5, no. 2 (2014): article 5.

  32. David E. Houchins, DaShaunda Puckett-Patterson, Shane Crosby, Margaret W. Shippen, and Kristine Jolivette, “Barriers to Facilitators to Providing Incarcerated Youth with Quality Education,” Preventing School Failure 53, no. 3 (2009): 159–66.

  33. Bruce Wolford, Juvenile Justice Education: Who Is Educating Youth? (Richmond, KY: EDJJ, 2000).

  34. Jennie L. Shufelt and Joseph J. Cocozza, Youth with Mental Health Disorders in the Juvenile Justice System: Results from a Multi-State Prevalence Study (Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice, 2006).

  35. Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice, Mental Health Issues in California’s Juvenile Justice System (Berkeley: U C Berkeley School of Law, 2010).

  36. Osa D. Coffey and Maia G. Gemignani, Effective Practices in Juvenile Correctional Education: A Study of the Literature and Research (Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1994). See also Nicholas W. Read and Mindee O’Cummings, “Factsheet: Juvenile Justice Education,” National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk, 2011, http://www.neglected-delinquent.org/sites/default/files/NDFactSheet.pdf.

  37. Donald Keeley, “Some Effects of the Label Juvenile Delinquent on Teacher Expectations of Student Behavior” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1973).

  38. Malcolm X, Speech at the Founding Rally of the Organization of Afro-American Unity, March 8, 1964. The full quote is “Education is our passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs only to the people who prepare for it today.”

  39. Ivory Toldson, Kamilah Woodson, Ronald Braithwaite, and Rhonda Holliday, “Academic Potential Among African American Adolescents in Juvenile Detention Centers: Implications for Reentry to School,” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 49, no. 8 (2010): 551–70.

  40. Veysey, Adolescent Girls with Mental Health Disorders.

  41. Toldson et al., “Academic Potential Among African American Adolescents.”

  42. Stopbullying.gov, “Facts About Bullying,” http://www.stopbullying.gov/news/media/facts/#listing.

  43. An IEP is an Individualized Education Plan, which is part of the district’s special education services.

  44. Linda LeBlanc and Alexander Ratnofsky, “Unlocking Learning: Chapter 1 in Correctional Facilities,” prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Und
er Secretary, Washington, DC, 1991, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112047630717;view=1up;seq=3.

  5. Repairing Relationships, Rebuilding Connections

  1. The “prison-industrial complex” refers to the “looming presence” of the prison system, both as a function of government and in its privatized state, and its attraction of capital and service (e.g. health, telecommunications, construction, etc.). See Mike Davis, “Hell Factories in the Field: A Prison-Industrial Complex,” The Nation, February 20, 1995. See also Angela Y. Davis, Are Prisons Obsolete? (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003).

  2. Alan Payne, Denise Gottfreson, and Candace Kruttschnitt, “Girls, Schooling, and Delinquency,” in The Delinquent Girl, ed. Margaret Zahn (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 149.

  3. Paolo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Continuum International, 2012).

  4. Monique W. Morris, “Sacred Inquiry and Delinquent Black Girls: Developing a Foundation for a Liberative Pedagogical Praxis,” in Understanding Work Experiences from Multiple Perspectives: New Paradigms for Organizational Excellence, ed. G.D. Sardana and Tojo Thatchenkerry (New Delhi: Bloomsbury India, 2014), 416–28; Peter Reason, “Reflections on Sacred Experience and Sacred Science,” Journal of Management Inquiry 2, no. 3 (1993): 277; Monique W. Morris, “Representing the Educational Experiences of Black Girls in a Juvenile Court School,” Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk 5, no. 2 (2014): article 5.

  5. “Justice by Gender: The Lack of Appropriate Prevention, Diversion and Treatment Alternatives for Girls in the Justice System,” William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law 9, no. 1 (2002): 73.

  6. Maya Angelou, “Equality,” in I Shall Not Be Moved (New York: Random House), 1990.

  7. Nikki Jones, Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-City Violence (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 158.

  8. Elaine Richardson, “My Ill-Literacy Narrative: Growing Up Black, Po and a Girl, in the Hood,” Gender and Education 21, no. 6 (2009): 753–67.