Pushout

by Monique W. Morris

  9. Caroline Hodges Persell, Education and Inequality: The Roots and Results of Stratification in America’s Schools (New York: The Free Press, 1977); Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Society, Education and Culture, 2nd ed. (London: Sage Publications, 1990). See also Kathleen Nolan, Police in the Hallways: Discipline in an Urban High School (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

  10. Donald Keeley, “Some Effects of the Label Juvenile Delinquent on Teacher Expectations of Student Behavior” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1973). See also Emanuel Mason, “Teachers’ Observations and Expectations of Boys and Girls as Influenced by Psychological Reports and Knowledge of the Effects of Bias,” Journal of Educational Psychology 65 (1973): 238–43.

  11. William Corsaro, The Sociology of Childhood, 4th ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015).

  12. Rebecca Carroll, Sugar in the Raw: Voices of Young Black Girls in America (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997). See also Ted Wachtel and Laura Mirsky, Safer, Saner Schools: Restorative Practices in Education, Restoring a Culture of Community in Learning Environments (Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2008).

  13. Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Violence and the Moral Life of the Inner City (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000).

  14. Manning Marable, Black Liberation in Conservative America (Boston: South End Press, 1997).

  Appendix A: Girls, We Got You!

  1. U.S. Census, “Education and Synthetic Work-Life Earnings Estimates,” September 2011, http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/acs-14.pdf.

  Appendix B: Alternatives to Punishment

  1. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, Primary FAQs, 2015, http://www.pbis.org/school/primary-level/faqs.

  2. Lucille Eber, George Sugai, Carl Smith, and Terrance Scott, “Wraparound and Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports in Schools,” Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 10, no. 3 (2002): 171.

  3. Ibid.

  4. Catherine P. Bradshaw, Mary M. Mitchell, and Philip Leaf, “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Student Outcomes: Results from a Randomized Controlled Effectiveness Trial in Elementary Schools,” Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions 12, no. 3 (July 2010), doi:10.1177/1098300709334798.

  5. George Sugai, Robert Horner, Glen Dunlap, Meme Heineman, Timothy Lewis, C. Michael Nelson, Terrance Scott, et al., Applying Positive Behavioral Support and Functional Behavioral Assessment in Schools (Eugene, OR: Center on Behavioral Interventions and Supports, University of Oregon, 1999).

  6. Bradshaw et al., “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”

  7. Elizabeth Steed, Tina Pomerleau, Howard Muscott, and Leigh Rohde, “Program-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in Rural Preschools,” Rural Special Education Quarterly 32, no. 1 (2013): 38.

  8. Brennan L. Wilcox, H. Rutherford Turnbull III, and Ann P. Turnbull, “Behavioral Issues and IDEA: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and the Functional Behavioral Assessment in the Disciplinary Context,” Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal 8, no. 3 (2000): 173–87.

  9. H. Rutherford Turnbull III, Brennan L. Wilcox, Matthew Stowe, Carolyn Raper, and Laura Penny Hedges, “Public Policy Foundations for Positive Behavioral Interventions, Strategies, and Supports,” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 2, no. 4 (2000): 218.

  10. Note that these norms may not have been created in partnership with the students. Rigorous measurements of PBIS outcomes in elementary schools include randomized controlled effectiveness trials, using the Effective Behavior Support Survey and the Schoolwide Evaluation Tool (SET) to measure the implementation and effectiveness of seven subscales, including (1) behavior expectations defined, (2) behavioral expectations taught, (3) reward system, (4) violation system, (5) monitoring and evaluation, (6) management, and (7) district support. In Maryland, researchers used the Implementation Phases Inventory (IPI), which follows a “stages of change” theoretical model (i.e., preparation, initiation, implementation, maintenance) to assess forty-four key elements of PBIS implementation. Researchers Bradshaw and Pas found that lower performing schools were more likely to use PBIS in Maryland, where participants in PBIS training self-identify. These scholars also found that district factors (e.g., qualified teachers, school disorganization, etc.) were closely related to training in and ultimately adopting PBIS.

  11. Catherine P. Bradshaw, Christine W. Koth, Katherine B. Bevans, Nicholas Ialongo, and Phillip J. Leaf, “The Impact of School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) on the Organizational Health of Elementary Schools,” School Psychology Quarterly 23 (2008): 462–73; Bradshaw, Mitchell, and Leaf, “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”

  12. Howard S. Muscott, Eric L. Mann, and Marcel R. LeBrun, “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in New Hampshire: Effects of Large-Scale Implementation of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support on Student Discipline and Academic Achievement,” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 10, no. 3 (2008): 190–205.

  13. Bradshaw et al., “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”

  14. Meeting 80 percent of the fidelity criteria on the overall and subscales related to teaching expectations have the most positive student outcomes. See J. Doolittle, “Sustainability of Positive Supports in Schools” (PhD diss., University of Oregon, 2006. See also Robert H. Horner, Anne W. Todd, Teri Lewis-Palmer, Larry K. Irvin, George Sugai, and Joseph J. Boland, “The School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET): A Research Instrument for Assessing School-wide Positive Behavior Support,” Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention 6 (2004): 3–12.

  15. Brandi Simonsen, Lucille Eber, Anne Black, George Sugai, Holly Lewandowski, Barbara Sims, and Diane Myers, “Illinois Statewide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Evolution and Impact on Student Outcomes Across Years,” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 14, no. 1 (2012): 5–16.

  16. Ibid.

  17. Muscott, Mann, and LeBrun, “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in New Hampshire,” 202.

  18. Kristine Jolivette, Sara C. McDaniel, Jeffrey Sprague, Jessica Swain-Bradway, and Robin Parks Ennis, “Embedding the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Framework into the Complex Array of Practices Within Alternative Education Settings: A Decision-Making Process,” Assessment for Effective Intervention 38, no. 1 (2012): 15.

  19. Nicole Cain Swoszowski, Kristine Jolivette, L.D. Fredrick, and Laura J. Heflin, “Check In/Check Out: Effects on Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders with Attention- or Escape-Maintained Behavior in a Residential Facility,” Exceptionality 20, no. 3 (2012): 163–78.

  20. Jolivette et al., “Embedding the Positive Behavioral Interventions.”

  21. Katrina Debnam, Elise Pas, and Catherine Bradshaw, “Secondary and Tertiary Support Systems in Schools Implementing School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: A Preliminary Descriptive Analysis,” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 14, no. 3 (2012): 142–52.

  22. Jessica Feierman, Rachel Kleinman, David Lapp, Monique Luse, Len Reiser, and Robert Schwartz, “Stemming the Tide: Promising Legislation to Reduce School Referrals to the Courts,” Family Court Review 51, no. 3 (2013): 409–17.

  23. Margaret Shippen, DaShaunda Patterson, Kemeche Green, and Tracy Smitherman, “Community and School Practices to Reduce Delinquent Behavior: Intervening on the School-to-Prison Pipeline,” Teacher Education and Special Education 35, no. 4 (2012): 296–308.

  24. Howard Zehr, Changing Lenses: A New Focus for Crime and Justice (Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press, 1990).

  25. Ada Pecos Melton, “Traditional and Contemporary Tribal Justice,” in Images of Color, Images of Crime, ed. Coramae Richey Mann and Marjorie S. Zatz (Los Angeles: Roxubry, 1998), 58–71; John Braithwaite, Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (London: Oxford University Press,
2002).

  26. Thalia González, “Keeping Kids in Schools: Restorative Justice, Punitive Discipline, and the School to Prison Pipeline,” Journal of Law and Education 41, no. 2 (2012): 281–335. See also Michael Sumner, Carol Silverman, and Mary Louise Frampton, School-Based Restorative Justice as an Alternative to Zero-Tolerance Policies: Lessons from West Oakland (Berkeley: Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice, University of California, Berkeley School of Law, 2010).

  27. Howard Zehr, The Little Book of Restorative Justice (Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 2002), 33.

  28. Ibid., 21.

  29. Ibid.

  30. Melton, “Traditional and Contemporary Tribal Justice,” 66.

  31. Edgar Cahn, Kerri Nash, and Cynthia Robbins, “A Strategy for Dismantling Structural Racism in the Juvenile Delinquency System,” Poverty and Race 20, no. 2 (2011): 1–8; William Bradshaw and David Roseborough, “Restorative Justice Dialogue: The Impact of Mediation and Conferencing on Juvenile Recidivism,” Federal Probation 69, no. 2 (2005): 15–21; Sarah Sun Beale, “Still Tough on Crime? Prospects for Restorative Justice in the United States,” Utah Law Review 1 (2003): 413–37. See also Carol Chmelynski, “Restorative Justice for Discipline with Respect,” Education Digest, September 2005; and Wendy Drewery, “Conferencing in Schools: Punishment, Restorative Justice, and the Productive Importance of the Process of Conversation,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 14 (2004): 332–44.

  32. Mary Louise Frampton, “Transformative Justice and the Dismantling of Slavery’s Legacy in Post-modern America,” in After the War on Crime, ed. Mary Louise Frampton, Ian Haney López, and Jonathan Simon (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 216.

  33. Zehr, Little Book of Restorative Justice, 42.

  34. Chmelynski, “Restorative Justice for Discipline with Respect,” 2005.

  35. Jessica Ashley and Kimberly Burke, Implementing Restorative Justice: A Guide for Schools (Chicago: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, 2009).

  36. Ted Wachtel and Laura Mirsky, L, Safer, Saner Schools: Restorative Practices in Education, Restoring a Culture of Community in Learning Environments (Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2008).

  37. Russell Fazio and Michael Olson, “Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meanings and Use,” Annual Review of Psychology 54 (2003): 297–303. See also Justin Levinson, “Forgotten Racial Inequality: Implicit Bias, Decision-making and Misremembering,” Duke Law Journal 57 (2007): 345–421.

  38. Anthony G. Greenwald and Linda Hamilton Krieger, “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations,” California Law Review 94 (2006): 945–67.

  39. Kelly Welch and Allison A. Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment: The Effect of Racial Threat on Expulsion and Suspension,” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 10, no. 20 (2012): 155–71. See also Lionel Brown and Kelvin Beckett, “The Role of the School District in Student Discipline: Building Consensus in Cincinnati,” Urban Review 38 (2006): 235–56.

  40. Welch and Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment.”

  41. Daniel Losen, Tia Martinez, and Jon Gillespie, Suspended Education in California (Los Angeles, CA: Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the University of California, Los Angeles Civil Rights Project, 2012), 39.

  42. González, “Keeping Kids in Schools,” 2012. See also Sumner et al., School-Based Restorative Justice.

  43. Welch and Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment.”

  44. Ashley and Burke, Implementing Restorative Justice; Wachtel and Mirsky, Safer, Saner Schools, 182. See also Bob Costello, Joshua Wachtel, and Ted Wachtel, The Restorative Practices Handbook for Teachers, Disciplinarians, and Administrators (Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2009.

  45. Costello et al., Restorative Practices Handbook.

  46. Ibid., 50.

  47. Ibid., 51.

  48. Advancement Project, Test, Punish, and Push Out: How “Zero Tolerance” and High-Stakes Testing Funnel Youth into the School-to-Prison Pipeline (Washington, DC: Advancement Project, 2010). See also American Psychological Association Task Force, “Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in Schools?,” American Psychologist 63, no. 9 (2008), 852–62; Costello et al., Restorative Practices Handbook.

  49. Monique W. Morris, Race, Gender, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls (Los Angeles: African American Policy Forum, 2012).

  50. Leticia Smith-Evans, Janel George, Fatima Goss-Graves, Lara Kaufmann, and Lauren Frohlich. Unlocking Opportunities for African American Girls: A Call to Action for Educational Equity (New York: NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, 2014).

  51. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Trends in Teen Pregnancy and Childbearing Teen Births (Washington, DC: DHHS, 2015), http://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-health-topics/reproductive-health/teen-pregnancy/trends.html.

  52. Emily Gaarder and Denise Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming,” Contemporary Justice Review: Issues in Criminal, Social, and Restorative Justice 15, no. 3 (2012): 239–64.

  53. Ibid., 249.

  54. Nancy Rodriguez, “Restorative Justice at Work: Examining the Impact of Restorative Justice Resolutions on Juvenile Recidivism,” Crime and Delinquency 53, no. 3 (2007): 355–79.

  55. Gaarder and Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming,” 254.

  56. Rebecca Hubbard Maniglia, “Translating Gender Theory into Juvenile Justice Practice for Girls” (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2007).

  57. Gaarder and Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming.”

  58. Ibid., 258.

  59. Ibid., 260.

  60. Ibid., 257.

  61. Beale, “Still Tough on Crime?” See also Bradshaw and Roseborough, “Restorative Justice Dialogue.”

  62. Gillean McCluskey, Gwynedd Lloyd, Jean Kane, Sheila Riddell, Joan Stead, and Elisabet Weedon, “Can Restorative Practices in Schools Make a Difference?,” Educational Review 60, no. 4 (2008): 405–17.

  63. Heather Cole and Julian Vasquez Heilig, “Developing a School-Based Youth Court: A Potential Alternative to the School to Prison Pipeline,” Journal of Law and Education 40, no. 2 (2011): 305–21.

  64. Zehr, Little Book of Restorative Justice, 2002.

  65. David Karp and Todd Clear, eds., What Is Community Justice? (London: Sage Publications, 2002). See also Jodi Lane, Amber Schroeder, Susan Turner, and Terri Fain, South Oxnard Challenge Project (Santa Barbara, CA: RAND, 2002). Also Paul Takagi and Gregory Shank, “Social Justice for Workers in the Global Economy,” Social Justice 31, no. 3 (2004): 147–63.

  66. Restorative Justice for Oakland Youth, “About,” Oakland, CA, http://www.rjoyoakland.org/about.php.

  67. Frampton, Transformative Justice.

  68. Lode Walgrave, ed., Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Potentialities, Risks, and Problems (Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1998).

  69. Howard Zehr, “Restorative Justice: The Concept,” Corrections Today 59, no. 7 (1997): 68–70.

  Methodology

  1. Linda Dale Bloomberg and Marie Volpe, Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap from Beginning to End (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2008).

  2. Clark Moustakas, Phenomenological Research Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994).

  3. Steinar Kvale, Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996). See also Sharan B. Merriam, Qualitative Research and Case Study Application in Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). Lastly, see Irving E. Seidman, Interviewing as Qualitative Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998).

  4. John Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003.

  5. Marcia S. Wertz, Marcianna Nosek, Susan McNiesh, and Elizabeth Marlow, “The Composite First Person Nar
rative: Texture, Structure, and Meaning in Writing Phenomenological Descriptions,” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Health and Wellbeing 6, no. 2 (2011).

  6. County Probation Department aggregate summary of youth admitted/released to secure detention in January 2013 and March 2013. Data on file with author.

  7. Joseph Betancourt, Alexander Green, J. Emilio Carrillo, and Owusu Ananeh-Firempong, “Defining Cultural Competence: A Practice Framework for Addressing Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health and Health Care,” Public Health Reports 118 (July–August 2003): 294.

  8. See Isami Arifuku, Monique Morris, Michelle Nuñez, and Mary Lai, “Culture Counts: How Five Community-Based Organizations Serve Asian and Pacific Islander Youth,” National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 2003.

  9. Stephanie Covington and Barbara Bloom, “Gendered Justice: Programming for Women in Correctional Settings,” paper presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, San Francisco, CA, November 2000, 12.

  10. Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen, Stephanie Covington, and Myrna Raeder, Gender Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders (Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections, 2003), vii.

  11. Meda Chesney-Lind, Merry Morash, and Katherine Irwin, “Policing Girlhood: Relational Aggression and Violence Prevention,” in Fighting for Girls: New Perspectives on Gender and Violence, ed. Meda Chesney-Lind and Nikki Jones (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010). See also Norine Johnson, Michael Roberts, and Judith Worell, Beyond Appearance: A New Look at Adolescent Girls (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1999).

  ABOUT THE AUTHOR

  Monique W. Morris, EdD, has been working in the areas of education, civil rights, and social justice for more than twenty years. She writes and lectures widely on the research, policies, and practices associated with improving juvenile justice and educational conditions for Black girls, women, and their families. She is a co-founder of the National Black Women’s Justice Institute and a 2012 Soros Justice Fellow, and she formerly served as Vice President for Economic Programs, Advocacy and Research at the NAACP and as Director of Research for the Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice at the UC Berkeley School of Law.