The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  10. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 152–3.

  11. W. D. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery in Italy and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge, 1958); R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981).

  12. Bernabò Brea, Sicily, pp. 138–9; cf. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 71–4.

  13. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 87, 95.

  14. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery; Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 85–6.

  15. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 67, 87–9.

  16. F. Stubbings, Mycenaean Pottery from the Levant (Cambridge, 1951).

  17. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 46–9.

  18. Ibid., pp. 41–2, 49–50; W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (Harmondsworth, 1949), pp. 101–4.

  19. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 131, 159.

  20. D. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt (London, 2004–5), pp. 39–42.

  21. A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 151–8.

  22. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 158–73.

  23. Ibid., pp. 12–13.

  24. Ibid., pp. 65–70.

  25. Bryce, Trojans, p. 89.

  26. H. Goedicke, The Report of Wenamun (Baltimore, MD, 1975).

  27. Ibid., pp. 175–83.

  28. Ibid., p. 51.

  29. Ibid., p. 58.

  30. Ibid., pp. 76, 84, 87.

  31. Ibid., p. 94.

  32. Ibid., p. 126.

  33. Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 252–7; Gurney, Hittites, p. 110; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150 BC (London, 1978), pp. 29–32; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 130–34.

  4. Sea Peoples and Land Peoples, 1250 BC–1100 BC

  1. C. Blegen, Troy (2nd edn, London, 2005), pp. 92–4; T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 58–61.

  2. J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution to an Old Mystery (London, 2004), pp. 20–37; cf. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 62–4.

  3. Bryce, Trojans, p. 117.

  4. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 49–51, 69.

  5. Ibid., pp. 46–7, fig. 10 (map of trade routes).

  6. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 104, 111.

  7. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London, 1952), pp. 49–50; Bryce, Trojans, pp. 110–11.

  8. Gurney, Hittites, pp. 51–2; Bryce, Trojans, p. 100.

  9. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 92–100.

  10. Blegen, Troy, pp. 124–8.

  11. For an argument favouring subsidence as a major cause of damage, see M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War (2nd edn, London, 1996), pp. 203–11.

  12. V. R. d’A. Desborough and N. G. L. Hammond, ‘The end of Mycenaean civilisation and the Dark Age’, Cambridge Ancient History, vols. 1 and 2, revised edn, pre-print fascicle (Cambridge, 1964), p. 4; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150 BC (London, 1978), p. 180.

  13. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 142–4; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 13–15.

  14. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 163–4, 170–73.

  15. Blegen, Troy, p. 142.

  16. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 133; also A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 284, 288; A. R. Burn, Minoans, Philistines, and Greeks BC 1400–900 (2nd edn, London, 1968).

  17. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 106–7.

  18. Ibid., pp. 50–51; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 198; B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), p. 55.

  19. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 105; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 265–6.

  20. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 20; A. Yasur-Landau, The Philistines and Aegean Migration and the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2010), p. 180.

  21. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 114; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 266; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 56, and plate 34 opposite p. 81.

  22. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 21.

  23. T. and M. Dothan, People of the Sea: the Search for the Philistines (New York, 1992), p. 95; cf. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 134–5.

  24. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 119; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 276–7.

  25. Sandars, Sea Peoples.

  26. Ibid., pp. 124, 134–5, 165, 178, plate 119; p. 189, plate 124; F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), supplementary plate 22; W. D. Taylour, The Mycenaeans (London, 1964), plate 7.

  27. Gurney, Hittites, p. 54.

  28. Joshua 18:1 and 19:40–48; Judges 5; Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 215–18; Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 163–4.

  29. Dothan, People of the Sea, p. 215.

  30. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 111–12, 200; Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 180, 182; cf. Gardiner, Egypt, p. 264.

  31. C. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge, MA, 1958), pp. 51–2.

  32. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 5; also V. R. d’A. Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors (Oxford, 1964).

  33. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 12.

  34. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1967), p. 136.

  35. R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999), p. 149; also R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981), p. 95.

  36. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 211–13.

  37. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 66–70.

  38. Dothan, People of the Sea, plates 5 and 6, and pp. 37–9, 53.

  39. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 334–45.

  40. I Samuel 17:5–7.

  41. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 305–6.

  42. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 8, 239–54.

  43. Amos 9:7.

  44. Exodus 15:1–18; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 206.

  45. Isserlin, Israelites, p. 57.

  46. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 3.

  PART TWO

  THE SECOND MEDITERRANEAN, 1000 BC–AD 600

  1. The Purple Traders, 1000 BC–700 BC

  1. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 136–43.

  2. M. E. Aubet, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2001), p. 128; S. Moscati, ‘Who were the Phoenicians?’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), pp. 17–19.

  3. G. Markoe, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, London, 2005), p. xviii.

  4. D. B. Harden, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1971), p. 20.

  5. S. Filippo Bondì, ‘The origins in the East’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 23–9.

  6. Aubet, Phoenicians in the West, pp. 23–5.

  7. Leviticus 18:22.

  8. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 38–45, 121.

  9. B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), pp. 149–59, for Israelite agriculture.

  10. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 48–9, and fig. 19.

  11. I Kings 9:11–14; S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (London, 1968), p. 33.

  12. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. xx, but missing the importance of grain.

  13. Ibid., p. 37 (King Ithobaal, early ninth century); Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 35.

  14. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 25; cf. Tyre: Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

  15. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 34–5; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

  16. Ezekiel 27.

  17. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 15–28.

  18. M. L. Uberti, ‘Ivory and bone carving’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 456–71.

  19. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 48.

  20. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 36; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 91, fig. 27, a later bas-relief from Nimrud showi
ng two monkeys.

  21. I Kings 9:26–8; I Kings 10:22, 10:49; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 31–4; Isserlin, Israelites, pp. 188–9.

  22. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 122.

  23. Genesis 44:2.

  24. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 80–84.

  25. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 137–45.

  26. V. Karageorghis, ‘Cyprus’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 185–9.

  27. Ibid., p. 191; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 41–2.

  28. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 51; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 40–41.

  29. Cf. Ezekiel’s account of Tyre: Ezekiel 27; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 163.

  30. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 166–72, 182–91; P. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 84–5.

  31. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 116–17; R. D. Ballard and M. McConnell, Adventures in Ocean Exploration (Washington, DC, 2001).

  32. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 117; cf. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 174.

  33. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 86–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 116.

  34. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 173–4.

  35. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 118–19.

  36. Ibid., p. xxi.

  37. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 87–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 174–8.

  38. S. Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, p. 137.

  39. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 215–16; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 58–9.

  40. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 221–6, and figs. 49 and 51.

  41. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 81.

  42. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 232.

  43. Harden, Phoenicians, pp. 35–6, figs. 6–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 81–3; popular account: G. Servadio, Motya: Unearthing a Lost Civilization (London, 2000).

  44. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 238.

  45. Ibid., pp. 311, 325; also Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 49–54.

  46. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 279.

  47. Ibid., pp. 279–81, 288–9.

  48. Jonah 1; Isaiah 23:1; cf. 23:6, 23:14.

  49. G. Garbini, ‘The question of the alphabet’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 101–119; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 141–3; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 120–26.

  50. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 108 and fig. 34; also plates 15 and 38; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 143–7.

  51. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 173–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 245–56 (though the biblical references there are confused); Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 69–73.

  52. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 249; Harden, Phoenicians, plate 35; Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 139–41; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 70.

  2. The Heirs of Odysseus, 800 BC–550 BC

  1. I. Malkin, The Returns of Odysseus: Colonisation and Ethnicity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1998), p. 17.

  2. Ibid., p. 22; also D. Briquel, Les Pélasges en Italie: recherches sur l’histoire de la légende (Rome, 1984); R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008).

  3. Odyssey 1:20, 5:291, 5:366, in the translation of Roger Dawe.

  4. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 4, 8.

  5. Notably in the works of the French Homer scholars Victor Bérard and his son Jean Bérard: J. Bérard, La colonisation grecque de l’Italie méridionale et de la Sicile dans l’antiquité (Paris, 1957), pp. viii, 304–9.

  6. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, p. 186.

  7. Ibid., p. 41; M. Scherer, The Legends of Troy in Art and Literature (New York, 1963).

  8. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 68–72.

  9. Ibid., pp. 68–9, 94–8; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 181–2.

  10. Odyssey 14:289; 15:416, trans. Dawe.

  11. M. Finley, The World of Odysseus (2nd edn, London, 1964).

  12. Odyssey 1:180–85, trans. Dawe.

  13. Ibid., 9:105–115.

  14. Ibid., 9:275.

  15. Ibid. 9:125–9 .

  16. Ibid. 1:280.

  17. D. Ridgway, The First Western Greeks (Cambridge, 1992) (revised edn of L’alba della Magna Grecia, Milan, 1984). Subsequent literature on the western Greeks: G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996); V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1996); D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte e memoria (Turin, 2005); also Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes.

  18. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 160.

  19. Cited by Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 99.

  20. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 52–69.

  21. Ibid., p. 159.

  22. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 17; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 55–9.

  23. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 172–88.

  24. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 22–4.

  25. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 138–49.

  26. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 55–6, figs. 8–9; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 157–8.

  27. Odyssey 3:54, trans. Dawe.

  28. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 57–9, 115.

  29. Ibid., pp. 111–13, and fig. 29, p. 112.

  30. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 169–70.

  31. Iliad 2:570 – cf. Thucydides 1:13.5; J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: a History of the City to 338 BC (Oxford, 1984), p. 1; M. L. Z. Munn, ‘Corinthian trade with the West in the classical period’ (Ph.D. thesis, Bryn Mawr College, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1983–4), p. 1.

  32. Pindar, Olympian Ode 13; C. M. Bowra (trans.), The Odes of Pindar (Harmondsworth, 1969), p. 170.

  33. Thucydides 1:13.

  34. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 84–5, 89.

  35. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 89.

  36. Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazousai, ll. 647–8.

  37. L. J. Siegel, ‘Corinthian trade in the ninth through sixth centuries BC’, 2 vols. (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1978), vol. 1, pp. 64–84, 242–57.

  38. Thucydides 1:13; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, p. 173.

  39. Herodotos 1:18.20 and 5:92; A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), pp. 50–51; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, pp. 176–8; also M. M. Austin, Greece and Egypt in the Archaic Age (supplements to Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, no. 2, Cambridge, 1970), especially p. 37.

  40. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 105–6, 109–10.

  41. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 6–7; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 101–5, 119.

  42. Woolley, Forgotten Kingdom pp. 183–7.

  43. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 99, 120.

  44. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 263–7, 323–5.

  45. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 136.

  46. K. Greene, ‘Technological innovation and economic progress in the ancient world: M. I. Finley reconsidered’, Economic History Review, vol. 53 (2000), pp. 29–59, especially 29–34.

  47. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 78, 84, 95–6, 111; cf. M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

  48. Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 45–9.

  49. Herodotos 5:92; Aristotle, Politics, 1313a35–37; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 197; also Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 50–53.

  50. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 199–204.

  51. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 70–71; A. Carandini, Re Tarquinio e il divino bastardo (Milan, 2010).

  52. A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), p. 220.

  53. Diodoros the Sicilian 15:13.1; Munn, Corinthian Trade, p. 35.

  54. Graham, Colony and Mother City, pp. 218–23.

  3. The Triumph of the T
yrrhenians, 800 BC–400 BC

  1. J. Boardman, Pre-classical: from Crete to Archaic Greece (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 169.

  2. D. Briquel, Origine lydienne des Étrusques: histoire de la doctrine dans l’antiquité (Rome, 1991).

  3. Herodotos 1:94.

  4. Tacitus, Annals 4:55; R. Drews, ‘Herodotos I. 94, the drought ca. 1200 BC, and the origin of the Etruscans’, Historia, vol. 41 (1992), p. 17.

  5. D. Briquel, Tyrrhènes, peuple des tours: Denys d’Halicarnasse et l’autochtonie des Étrusques (Rome, 1993).

  6. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30.

  7. M. Pallottino, The Etruscans (2nd edn, London, 1975), pp. 78–81; but the point about Tarhun is mine.

  8. Beginning with Ciba Foundation Symposium on Medical Biology and Etruscan Origins, ed. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and C. M. O’Connor (London, 1958).

  9. G. Barbujani et al., ‘The Etruscans: a population-genetic study’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 74 (2004), pp. 694–704; A. Piazza, A. Torroni et al., ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80 (2007), pp. 759–68.

  10. C. Dougherty, ‘The Aristonothos krater: competing stories of conflict and collaboration’, in C. Dougherty and L. Kurke (eds.), The Cultures within Ancient Greek Culture: Contact, Conflict, Collaboration (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 35–56.

  11. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 142–6; R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008), pp. 142–6.

  12. Homeric Hymn no. 8, to Dionysos; see also M. Iuffrida Gentile, La pirateria tirrenica: momenti e fortuna, Supplementi a Kókalos, no. 6 (Rome and Palermo, 1983), pp. 33–47.

  13. M. Cristofani, Gli Etruschi del mare (Milan, 1983), pp. 57–8 and plate 37 – cf. plate 68 (late 4th c.); G. Pettena, Gli Etruschi e il mare (Turin, 2002); Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 37.

  14. M. Torelli, ‘The battle for the sea-routes, 1000–300 BC’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), pp. 101–3.

  15. Herodotos 1:57; also 4:145, 5:26; Thucydides 4:14.

  16. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 648–9; cf. Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 47.