The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

17. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30; they called themselves Rasna.

  18. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 629; Lemnian aviz = Etruscan avils, ‘years’.

  19. Ibid., generally, and pp. 628, 637, 650; Il commercio etrusco arcaico (Quaderni del Centro di Studio per l’Archeologia etrusco-italica, vol. 9, Rome, 1985); G. M. della Fina (ed.), Gli Etruschi e il Mediterraneo: commercio e politica (Annali della Fondazione per il Museo Claudio Faina, vol. 13, Orvieto and Rome, 2006); cf. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 56–60.

  20. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 615.

  21. Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 67; H. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins (London, 1968), pp. 78–84.

  22. Pallottino, Etruscans, pp. 91–4.

  23. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 99 and plates 54, 90–93.

  24. R. Leighton, Tarquinia: an Etruscan City (London, 2004), pp. 56–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 66–73.

  25. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, plates 139–41.

  26. Ibid., p. 72, fig. 31c, and p. 119.

  27. Dougherty, ‘Aristonothos krater’, pp. 36–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 116, 230, and plates 76–7.

  28. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 28–9 and plate 15.

  29. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 122, and plate 138.

  30. Ibid., p. 123.

  31. G. Camporeale et al., The Etruscans outside Etruria (Los Angeles, CA, 2004), p. 29.

  32. S. Bruni, Pisa Etrusca: anatomia di una città scomparsa (Milan, 1998), pp. 86–113.

  33. Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 37; also Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 51 (Bronze Age contact).

  34. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 254–390.

  35. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30.

  36. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 137–41.

  37. E.g. Pallottino, Etruscans, plate 11.

  38. D. Diringer, ‘La tavoletta di Marsiliana d’Albegna’, Studi in onore di Luisa Banti (Rome, 1965), pp. 139–42; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 159.

  39. A. Mullen, ‘Gallia Trilinguis: the multiple voices of south-eastern Gaul’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 2008), p. 90; H. Rodríguez Somolinos, ‘The commercial transaction of the Pech Maho lead: a new interpretation’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 111 (1996), pp. 74–6; Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 89.

  40. E. Acquaro, ‘Phoenicians and Etruscans’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), p. 613; Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 221.

  41. Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 112 and plate 11 (original in Museo Nazionale Etrusco, Tarquinia); Herodotos 4:152.

  42. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 523–5.

  43. Announced in Corriere della Sera, 5 August 2010; La Stampa, 6 August 2010.

  44. J. D. Beazley, Etruscan Vase-Painting (Oxford, 1947), p. 1.

  45. Ibid., p. 3.

  46. So named by J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figure Vase-Painters (2nd edn, Oxford, 1964).

  47. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30 and plate 13.

  48. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 393–475; Torelli, ‘Battle for the sea-routes’, p. 117.

  49. Herodotos 1:165–7.

  50. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 83 and plates 54, 58; cf. O. W. von Vacano, The Etruscans in the Ancient World (London, 1960), p. 121.

  51. L. Donati, ‘The Etruscans and Corsica’, in Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, pp. 274–9.

  52. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 70, 84.

  53. A. G. Woodhead, The Greeks in the West (London, 1962), p. 78.

  54. Pindar, Pythian Odes, 1:72–4, trans. M. Bowra.

  55. C. and G. Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (London, 1968), p. 81.

  56. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 514–22.

  57. Diodoros the Sicilian 11:88.4–5; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 114–15.

  58. Thucydides 6:88.6.

  59. Thucydides 7:57.11.

  60. Leighton, Tarquinia, p. 133 and fig. 56, p. 140; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 521, 686; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 115.

  61. Cf. T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks: the History of Sicily and South Italy from the Foundation of the Greek Colonies to 480 BC (Oxford, 1968), p. 207.

  62. Cited by J. Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans (London, 1964), p. 33.

  63. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 95.

  64. C. Riva, ‘The archaeology of Picenum’, in G. Bradley, E. Isayev and C. Riva (eds.), Ancient Italy: Regions without Boundaries (Exeter, 2007), pp. 96–100 (for Matelica).

  65. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 93.

  66. Ibid., p. 101 and plate 66, p. 103, pp. 128–9; Heurgon, Daily Life, p. 140; cf. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 228–9; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 103, 129.

  67. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 128.

  4. Towards the Garden of the Hesperides, 1000 BC–400 BC

  1. M. Guido, Sardinia (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1963), pp. 59–60; cf. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 87–91.

  2. M. Pallottino, La Sardegna nuragica (2nd edn, with an introduction by G. Lilliu, Nuoro, 2000), pp. 109–14.

  3. Ibid., pp. 91–102.

  4. Ibid., p. 162; Guido, Sardinia, pp. 106–7, 142.

  5. Guido, Sardinia, p. 156.

  6. Ibid., pp. 112–18; Pallottino, Sardegna nuragica, pp. 141–7.

  7. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 113–15, and fig, 19, p. 114, also pp. 164–7, figs. 29–30, and pp. 185–6.

  8. Guido, Sardinia, pp. 172–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 145 (Vulci).

  9. Guido, Sardinia, plates 56–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 115–19, 123–40; Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, Guide to the Collection (3rd edn, Jerusalem, 2002), p. 84.

  10. V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1966), pp. 184–9; D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte a memoria (Turin, 2005), pp. 203–14.

  11. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 402.

  12. Herodotos 1.163–7; A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), pp. 111–12; M. Sakellariou, ‘The metropolises of the western Greeks’, in G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996), pp. 187–8; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, pp. 179–81, 184–5; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 203–4.

  13. G. Pugliese Carratelli, ‘An outline of the political history of the Greeks in the West’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 154–5.

  14. M. Bats, ‘The Greeks in Gaul and Corsica’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 578–80, and plate, p. 579; V. Kruta, ‘The Greek and Celtic worlds: a meeting of two cultures’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 585–90; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 206–7.

  15. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 216–17; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 187.

  16. Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 43:4; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 218; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 186.

  17. L. Foxhall, Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy (Oxford, 2007), and other studies by the same author.

  18. Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 219.

  19. Ibid., p. 224.

  20. Kruta and Bats in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 580–83; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 224.

  21. P. Dixon, The Iberians of Spain and Their Relations with the Aegean World (Oxford, 1940), p. 38.

  22. Ibid., pp. 35–6.

  23. A. Arribas, The Iberians (London, 1963), pp. 56–7.

  24. B. Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek (London, 2001).

  25. Avienus, Ora Maritima, ed. J. P. Murphy (Chicago, IL, 1977); L. Antonelli, Il Periplo nascosto: lettura stratigrafica e commento storico-
archeologico dell’Ora Maritima di Avieno (Padua, 1998) (with edition); F. J. González Ponce, Avieno y el Periplo (Ecija, 1995).

  26. Avienus ll. 267–74.

  27. Ibid. ll. 80–332, especially ll. 85, 113–16, 254, 308, 290–98.

  28. Ibid. ll. 309–12, 375–80, 438–48, 459–60.

  29. Cunliffe, Extraordinary Voyage, pp. 42–8; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 39–40.

  30. Avienus ll. 481–2, 485–9, 496–7, 519–22.

  31. Dixon, Iberians of Spain; Arribas, Iberians; A. Ruiz and M. Molinos, The Archaeology of the Iberians (Cambridge, 1998).

  32. Avienus l. 133.

  33. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 89, 93, 95, figs. 24, 27, 28, and pp. 102–4, 120, bearing in mind Foxhall, Olive Cultivation.

  34. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 146–9.

  35. Ibid., plates 35–8, 52–4.

  36. Ibid., p. 160; also plates 22–3; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 106–7, 113–15 and frontispiece.

  37. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 107.

  38. Ibid., p. 82 and plate 12b.

  39. Arribas, Iberians, p. 131 and plate 21; also Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 11.

  40. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 85–8, plates 10, 11a and b.

  41. Ibid., pp. 54–60; Arribas, Iberians, pp. 73–87.

  5. Thalassocracies, 550 BC–400 BC

  1. N. G. L. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322 BC (Oxford, 1959), p. 226.

  2. Thucydides 1:5.

  3. Aeschylus, The Persians (Persae), trans. Gilbert Murray (London, 1939), ll. 230–34, p. 30.

  4. A. R. Burn, The Pelican History of Greece (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp. 146, 159; Hammond, History of Greece, pp. 176, 202; J. Morrison and J. Oates, The Athenian Trireme: the History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship (Cambridge, 1986).

  5. Thucydides 1:21; Herodotos 3:122; C. Constantakopolou, The Dance of the Islands: Insularity, Networks, the Athenian Empire and the Aegean World (Oxford, 2007), p. 94.

  6. Herodotos 5:31.

  7. Burn, Pelican History, p. 158.

  8. P. Cartledge, The Spartans: an Epic History (London, 2002), pp. 101–17.

  9. Burn, Pelican History, p. 174 – cf. Hammond, History of Greece, p. 202.

  10. On numbers: W. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare (Annapolis, MD, 1937), pp. 80–95.

  11. Ibid., p. 86.

  12. Aeschylus, Persians, ll. 399–405, p. 39.

  13. J. Hale, Lords of the Sea: the Triumph and Tragedy of Ancient Athens (London, 2010).

  14. Thucydides 1:14.

  15. Ibid. 1:13 and 3:104; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 47–8.

  16. Thucydides. 3.104 (trans. Rex Warner); cf. Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, ll. 144–55.

  17. Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, p. 70.

  18. Displayed on the modern doors of the library that commemorates his name in the History Faculty, Cambridge University.

  19. A. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy: the Athenian Grain Supply in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC (Oxford, 2007), pp. 28–31.

  20. Aristophanes, Horai, fragment 581, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 75.

  21. Cf. P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge, 1988), and M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

  22. Isokrates 4:107–9, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 77.

  23. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 100.

  24. Thucydides 8:96; cf. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 126.

  25. Herodotos 7:147.

  26. R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire (Oxford, 1972), pp. 121–3, 530; Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 318.

  27. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 319; cf. P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p. 121.

  28. P. J. Rhodes, The Athenian Empire (Greece and Rome, New Surveys in the Classics, no. 17) (Oxford, 1985).

  29. Thucydides 1 (trans. Rex Warner).

  30. Ibid. 1:2; J. Wilson, Athens and Corcyra: Strategy and Tactics in the Peloponnesian War (Bristol, 1987); D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War: Athens and Sparta in Savage Conflict 431–404 BC (London, 2003), p. 25.

  31. Thucydides 1:2 (adapted from version by Rex Warner).

  32. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 27.

  33. Thucydides 1:3.

  34. Ibid.

  35. Thucydides 1:4; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 34–6, and map 8, p. 35.

  36. Thucydides 1:67.2; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 41, n.1.

  37. Thucydides 1:6.

  38. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 100–101; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 239–42.

  39. Thucydides 3:13.

  40. Ibid. 4:1.

  41. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 142–7.

  42. Thucydides 4:2.

  43. Ibid. 3:86.4.

  44. Ibid. 6:6.1; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 118–20.

  45. Cf. Thucydides 6:6.1.

  46. Ibid. 6:46.3.

  47. W. M. Ellis, Alcibiades (London, 1989), p. 54.

  48. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 280.

  49. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare, pp. 159–67.

  50. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 321.

  51. Ibid., pp. 402–14.

  52. Ibid., pp. 331–2.

  53. Xenophon, Hellenika, 2:1; Cartledge, Spartans, pp. 192–202.

  54. Xenophon, Hellenika, 3:2, 3:5, 4:2, 4:3, 4:4, 4:5, 4:7, 4:8, 4:9, etc.

  6. The Lighthouse of the Mediterranean, 350 BC–100 BC

  1. R. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (3rd edn, Harmondsworth, 1986), pp. 181–91.

  2. Serious account: P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1972), vol. 1, p. 3; popular account: J. Pollard and H. Reid, The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, Birthplace of the Modern Mind (New York, 2006), pp. 6–7.

  3. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, p. 198.

  4. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 2–3.

  5. Strabo, Geography, 17:8; J.-Y. Empereur, Alexandria: Past, Present and Future (London, 2002), p. 23.

  6. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, pp. 461–72.

  7. S.-A. Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria and the Egyptian tradition’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), pp. 15–40.

  8. J. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians in ancient Alexandria from the Ptolemies to Caracalla’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 146–9.

  9. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 255; Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 24–5.

  10. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 252; also pp. 116–17.

  11. Ibid., p. 259.

  12. Strabo, Geography, 17:7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 132, 143.

  13. M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1941), vol. 1, p. 29.

  14. L. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp. 131–3.

  15. Ibid., p. 130.

  16. Ibid., p. 135, and pl. 32.

  17. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 367, 387; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 137–9.

  18. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 395–6.

  19. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 160; cf. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 226–9.

  20. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 150.

  21. Ibid., pp. 176, 178–81.

  22. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 35.

  23. Bosphoran grain: G. J. Oliver, War, Food, and Politics in Early Hellenistic Athens (Oxford, 2007), pp. 22–30.

  24. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 359–60, 363.

  25. Diodoros the Sicilian 1:34.

  26. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 315; H. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 1–14.

  27. Irenae
us, cited in M. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, p. 167.

  28. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 172; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 329.

  29. Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 38–9.

  30. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, pp. 9–10.

  31. Comments by E. V. Rieu in his translation of Apollonius of Rhodes, The Voyage of Argo (Harmondsworth, 1959), pp. 25–7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 627.

  32. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, p. 79.

  33. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 43.

  34. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 174.

  35. N. Collins, The Library in Alexandria and the Bible in Greek (Leiden, 2000), p. 45: Philo, Josephus (Jewish authors); Justin, Tertullian (Christian authors – also Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, attributing the work to the reign of Ptolemy I).

  36. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians’, pp. 149–51.

  37. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 331, 338–76, 387–9.

  38. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 133–7.

  39. N. K. Rauh, Merchants, Sailors and Pirates in the Roman World (Stroud, 2003), pp. 65–7.

  40. P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 80–84.

  41. Casson, Ancient Mariners, pp. 138–40.

  42. Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

  43. Diodoros the Sicilian 22:81.4, cited by Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

  44. Rauh, Merchants, p. 68.

  45. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 163.

  46. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 230–32; for its early development, see G. Reger, Regionalism and Change in the Economy of Independent Delos, 314–167 BC (Berkeley, CA, 1994); later developments in: N. Rauh, The Sacred Bonds of Commerce: Religion, Economy, and Trade Society at Hellenistic-Roman Delos, 166–87 BC (Amsterdam, 1993).

  47. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 53–65, 73–4; Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 165.

  7. ‘Carthage Must Be Destroyed’, 400 BC–146 BC

  1. B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London, 1960), pp. 74–5, 77; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 121–3.

  2. Xenophon, Hellenika, 1:1.

  3. A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), p. 137; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 123–4.