The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  24. Ramon Llull, ‘Book of the Gentile and the three wise men’, in A. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus: a Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton, NJ, 1993), p. 168.

  25. ‘Vita coetanea’, in Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, pp. 24–5, 28–30.

  26. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, p. 43.

  27. C.-E. Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib au XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris, 1966), pp. 514–20.

  28. D. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants and the western Mediterranean, 1236–1300: studies in the notarial acts of Barcelona and Sicily’, Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 16 (1985), pp. 232–5, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay viii.

  29. Ibid., pp. 235, 237.

  30. Ibid., pp. 220–21.

  31. A. Hibbert, ‘Catalan consulates in the thirteenth century’, Cambridge Historical Journal, vol. 9 (1949), pp. 352–8; Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 133–56.

  32. J. Hillgarth, The Problem of a Catalan Mediterranean Empire 1229–1327 (English Historical Review, supplement no. 8, London, 1975), p. 41; A. Atiya, Egypt and Aragon (Leipzig, 1938), pp. 57–60.

  33. Hillgarth, Problem, p. 41; J. Trenchs Odena, ‘De alexandrinis (el comercio prohibido con los musulmanes y el papado de Aviñón durante la primera mitad del siglo XIV)’, Anuario de estudios medievales, vol. 10 (1980), pp. 237–320.

  34. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, p. 222.

  35. Ibid., pp. 230–31.

  36. J. Brodman, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: the Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier (Philadelphia, PA, 1986); J. Rodriguez, Captives and Their Saviors in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Washington, DC, 2007).

  37. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 130–39.

  38. Ibid., pp. 188–215; A. Ortega Villoslada, El reino de Mallorca y el mundo atlántico: evolución político-mercantil (1230–1349) (Madrid, 2008); also Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 208–37.

  39. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, pp. 237–8.

  40. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 7–17.

  41. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), pp. 164–201.

  42. Ibid., pp. 346–7.

  43. G. Lesage, Marseille angevine (Paris, 1950).

  44. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 240–45.

  45. P. Xhufi, Dilemat e Arbërit: studime mbi Shqipërinë mesjetare (Tirana, 2006), pp. 89–172.

  46. J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), pp. 35–103.

  47. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 15.

  48. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 66–76; S. Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers: a History of the Mediterranean World in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1958).

  49. H. Bresc, ‘1282: classes sociales et révolution nationale’, XI Congresso di storia della Corona d’Aragona (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 241–58, repr. in H. Bresc, Politique et société en Sicile, XIIe-XVe siècles (Aldershot, 1990).

  50. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

  51. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 107–71.

  52. J. Pryor, ‘The naval battles of Roger de Lauria’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 9 (1983), pp. 179–216.

  53. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 29–30.

  54. Ibid., pp. 31–2.

  55. From the chronicle of Bernat Desclot: see ibid., pp. 39–40.

  56. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 33–4.

  57. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 10–12.

  8. Serrata – Closing, 1291–1350

  1. S. Schein, Fideles Cruces: the Papacy, the West and the Recovery of the Holy Land, 1274–1314 (Oxford, 1991).

  2. A. Laiou, Constantinople and the Latins: the Foreign Policy of Andronicus II 1282–1328 (Cambridge, MA, 1972), pp. 68–76, 147–57.

  3. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), p. 84.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Sul commercio del grano siciliano nel tardo Duecento’, XIo Congresso della Corona d’Aragona, 4 vols. (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 5–22, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay vii.

  5. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

  6. G. Jehel, Aigues-mortes, un port pour un roi: les Capétiens et la Méditerranée (Roanne, 1985); K. Reyerson, Business, Banking and Finance in Medieval Montpellier (Toronto, 1985).

  7. P. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191–1374 (Cambridge, 1991); very helpful studies in B. Arbel, Cyprus, the Franks and Venice, 13th–16th Centuries (Aldershot, 2000).

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘The Levant trade of the minor cities in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries: strengths and weaknesses’, in The Medieval Levant. Studies in Memory of Eliyahu Ashtor (1914–1984), ed. B. Z. Kedar and A. Udovitch, Asian and African Studies, vol. 22 (1988), pp. 183–202.

  9. P. Edbury, ‘The crusading policy of King Peter I of Cyprus, 1359–1369’, in P. Holt (ed.), The Eastern Mediterranean Lands in the Period of the Crusades (Warminster, 1977), pp. 90–105; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, pp. 147–79.

  10. R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600 (London, 1980), pp. 176–9; J. Robson, ‘The Catalan fleet and Moorish sea-power (1337–1344)’, English Historical Review, vol. 74 (1959), p. 391.

  11. Lane, Venice, p. 46.

  12. D. Abulafia, ‘Venice and the kingdom of Naples in the last years of Robert the Wise, 1332–1343’, Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 48 (1980), pp. 196–9.

  13. S. Chojnacki, ‘In search of the Venetian patriciate: families and faction in the fourteenth century’, in Renaissance Venice, ed. J. R. Hale (London, 1973), pp. 47–90.

  14. Another project involved an exchange with Albania: D. Abulafia, ‘The Aragonese Kingdom of Albania: an Angevin project of 1311–16’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 10 (1995), pp. 1–13

  15. M. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio dei cereali nei paesi della Corona d’Aragona, 1: La Sardegna (Pisa and Cagliari, 1981); C. Manca, Aspetti dell’espansione economica catalano-aragonese nel Mediterraneo occidentale: il commercio internazionale del sale (Milan, 1966); M. Tangheroni, Città dell’argento: Iglesias dalle origini alla fine del Medioevo (Naples, 1985).

  16. F. C. Casula, La Sardegna aragonese, 2 vols. (Sassari, 1990–91); B. Pitzorno, Vita di Eleanora d’Arborea, principessa medioevale di Sardegna (Milan, 2010).

  17. D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 15–17, 54.

  18. Ibid., pp. 14, 248.

  19. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 216, table 2, and p. 217; J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), p. 86.

  20. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 211–24.

  21. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio, pp. 72–8.

  22. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, p. 386.

  23. G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974), pp. 60–72; M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 37–40.

  24. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, pp. 389–91, 394, 398.

  25. Harvey, Gibraltar, pp. 44–5.

  26. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), p. 225; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, p. 123.

  27. K. Setton, The Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311–1
388 (2nd edn, London, 1975).

  28. E. Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade: Venetian Crete and the Emirates of Menteshe and Aydın (1300–1415) (Venice, 1983), pp. 13–14.

  29. Ibid., pp. 27–37.

  30. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 59–60; Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade, pp. 49–51.

  31. W. C. Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1966); cf. D. Abulafia, ‘Un’economia in crisi? L’Europa alla vigilia della Peste Nera’, Archivio storico del Sannio, vol. 3 (1998), pp. 5–24.

  32. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), p. 281.

  33. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-century Depression (New Haven, CT, 1976).

  34. M. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, NJ, 1977); Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 60–64, 69; for the view that it was not bubonic and pneumonic plague, see B. Gummer, The Scourging Angel: the Black Death in the British Isles (London, 2009).

  35. S. Borsch, The Black Death in Egypt and England: a Comparative Study (Cairo, 2005), pp. 1–2.

  36. Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 70–71, 93–4.

  37. Ibid., pp. 77–82, 89–90, 278–81.

  38. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

  39. Ibid., pp. 65–6.

  40. Ibid., pp. 380–84.

  41. D. Abulafia, ‘Carestia, peste, economia’, Le epidemie nei secoli XIV–XVII (Nuova Scuola Medica Salernitana, Salerno, 2006).

  42. S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992).

  PART FOUR

  THE FOURTH MEDITERRANEAN, 1350–1830

  1. Would-be Roman Emperors, 1350–1480

  1. D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 217–21; F. Melis, Aspetti della vita economica medievale (studi nell’Archivio Datini di Prato) (Siena and Florence, 1962); I. Origo, The Merchant of Prato (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963).

  2. Origo, Merchant of Prato, p. 128.

  3. I. Houssaye Michienzi, ‘Réseaux et stratégies marchandes: le commerce de la compagnie Datini avec le Maghrib (fin XIVe–début XVe siècle)’, (doctoral dissertation, European University Institute, Florence, 2010).

  4. Origo, Merchant of Prato, pp. 97–8.

  5. R. de Roover, The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494 (Cambridge, MA, 1963).

  6. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-century Depression (New Haven, CT, 1976), arguing that a supposed economic depression was matched by psychological depression among merchants.

  7. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), pp. 118–33.

  8. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 176–9; S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 220–21.

  9. Lane, Venice, p. 186; Epstein, Genoa, pp. 219–20.

  10. S. McKee, Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity (Philadelphia, PA, 2000), pp. 145–61.

  11. Lane, Venice, pp. 189–201; Epstein, Genoa, pp. 237–42.

  12. Lane, Venice, p. 196.

  13. Cf. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis.

  14. Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, ‘Inferno’, 21:7–15; Lane, Venice, p. 163.

  15. Lane, Venice, pp. 122–3, 163–4; F. C. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Renaissance (Baltimore, MD, 1934).

  16. Lane, Venice, p. 120.

  17. H. Prescott, Jerusalem Journey: Pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1954); H. Prescott, Once to Sinai: the Further Pilgrimage of Friar Felix Fabri (London, 1957).

  18. Petrarch’s Guide to the Holy Land: Itinerary to the Sepulcher of Our Lord Jesus Christ, ed. T. Cachey (Notre Dame, IN, 2002).

  19. Cyriac of Ancona, Later Travels, ed. E. Bondar (Cambridge, MA, 2003); M. Belozerskaya, To Wake the Dead: a Renaissance Merchant and the Birth of Archaeology (New York, 2009); B. Ashmole, ‘Cyriac of Ancona’, in Art and Politics in Renaissance Italy, ed. G. Holmes (Oxford, 1993), pp. 41–57.

  20. N. Z. Davis, Trickster Travels: a Sixteenth-century Muslim between Worlds (New York, 2006).

  21. P. Corrao, Governare un regno: potere, società e istituzioni in Sicilia fra Trecento e Quattrocento (Naples, 1991).

  22. J. Carbonell and F. Manconi (eds.), I Catalani in Sardegna (Milan, 1994); G. Goddard King, Pittura sarda del Quattro-Cinquecento (2nd edn, Nuoro, 2000).

  23. A. Ryder, Alfonso the Magnanimous, King of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily, 1396–1458 (Oxford, 1990).

  24. P. Stacey, Roman Monarchy and the Renaissance Prince (Cambridge, 2007).

  25. J. Favier, Le roi René (Paris, 2009); M. Kekewich, The Good King: René of Anjou and Fifteenth-century Europe (Basingstoke, 2008).

  26. W. Küchler, Die Finanzen der Krone Aragon während des 15. Jahrhunderts (Alfons V. und Johann II.) (Münster, 1983); L. Sánchez Aragonés, Cortes, monarquía y ciudades en Aragón, durante el reinado de Alfonso el Magnánimo (Saragossa, 1994).

  27. A. Gallo, Commentarius de Genuensium maritima classe in Barchinonenses expedita, anno MCCCCLXVI, ed. C. Fossati (Fonti per la storia dell’Italia medievale, Rerum italicarum scriptores, ser. 3, vol. 8, Rome, 2010); and C. Fossati, Genovesi e Catalani: guerra sul mare. Relazione di Antonio Gallo (1466) (Genoa, 2008).

  28. D. Abulafia, ‘From Tunis to Piombino: piracy and trade in the Tyrrhenian Sea, 1397–1472’, in The Experience of Crusading, vol. 2: Defining the Crusader Kingdom, ed. P. Edbury and J. Phillips (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 275–97.

  29. D. Abulafia, ‘The mouse and the elephant: relations between the kings of Naples and the lordship of Piombino in the fifteenth century’, in J. Law and B. Paton (eds.), Communes and Despots: Essays in Memory of Philip Jones (Aldershot, 2010), pp. 145–60; G. Forte, Di Castiglione di Pescaia presidio aragonese dal 1447 al 1460 (Grosseto, 1935; also published in Bollettino della società storica maremmana, 1934–5).

  30. M. Navarro Sorní, Calixto II Borja y Alfonso el Magnánimo frente a la cruzada (Valencia, 2003); cf. A. Ryder, ‘The eastern policy of Alfonso the Magnanimous’, Atti dell’Accademia Pontaniana, vol. 27 (1979), pp. 7–27.

  31. D. Abulafia, ‘Scanderbeg: a hero and his reputation’, introduction to H. Hodgkinson, Scanderbeg (London, 1999), pp. ix–xv; O. J. Schmitt, Skënderbeu (Tirana, 2008; German edn: Skanderbeg: der neue Alexander auf dem Balkan, Regensburg, 2009); F. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, ed. W. Hickman (Princeton, NJ, 1979), pp. 390–96.

  32. D. Duran i Duelt, Kastellórizo, una isla griega bajo dominio de Alfonso el Magnánimo (1450–1458), colección documental (Barcelona, 2003); C. Marinescu, La politique orientale d’Alfonse V d’Aragon, roi de Naples (1416–1458) (Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Memòries de la Secció Històrico-Arqueològica, vol. 46, Barcelona, 1994), pp. 203–34.

  33. D. Abulafia, ‘Genoese, Turks and Catalans in the age of Mehmet II and Tirant lo Blanc’, in Quel mar che la terra inghirlanda. Studi sul Mediterraneo medievale in ricordo di Marco Tangheroni, 2 vols. (Pisa, 2007), vol. 1, pp. 49–58; English translations: C. R. La Fontaine, Tirant lo Blanc: the Complete Translation (New York, 1993), a full literal translation, and D. Rosenthal, trans. Tirant lo Blanc (London, 1984), an abridged version.

  34. E. Aylward, Martorell’s Tirant lo Blanch: a Program for Military and Social Reform in Fifteenth-century Christendom (Chapel Hill, NC, 1985).

  35. Tirant lo Blanc, chapter 99.

  36. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks by Doukas: an Annotated Translation of Historia Turco-Byzantina, ed. H. Magoulias (Detroit, 1976), chap. 38:5, p. 212.

  37. H. İnalcık, The Ottoman Empire: the Classical Age 1300–1600 (London, 1973).

  38. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 359–66.

  39. P. Butorac, Kotor za samovlade (1355–1420) (Perast, 1999), pp. 75–115
.

  40. L. Malltezi, Qytetet e bregdetit shqiptar gjatë sundemit Venedikas (aspekte te jetës së tyre) (Tirana, 1988), pp. 229–41 (French summary); O. J. Schmitt, Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479) (Munich, 2001).

  41. L. Butler, The Siege of Rhodes 1480 (Order of St John Historical Pamphlets, no. 10, London, 1970), pp. 1–24; E. Brockman, The Two Sieges of Rhodes 1480–1522 (London, 1969); Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 396–9.

  42. Butler, Siege of Rhodes, pp. 11, 22.

  43. H. Houben (ed.), La conquista turca di Otranto (1480) tra storia e mito, 2 vols. (Galatina, 2008); Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 390–91, 395.

  44. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 390–96.

  45. C. Kidwell, ‘Venice, the French invasion and the Apulian ports’, in The French Descent into Renaissance Italy 1494–1495: Antecedents and Effects, ed. D. Abulafia (Aldershot, 1995), pp. 295–308.

  46. Ibid., p. 300.

  47. N. Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanism and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia, PA, 2004); R. Mack, Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600 (Berkeley, CA, 2002).

  48. C. Campbell, A. Chong, D. Howard and M. Rogers, Bellini and the East (National Gallery, London, 2006).

  49. D. Abulafia, ‘Dalmatian Ragusa and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 54 (1976), pp. 412–28, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

  50. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), pp. 58–63.

  51. F. Carter, ‘Balkan exports through Dubrovnik 1358–1500: a geographical analysis’, Journal of Croatian Studies, vols. 9–10 (1968–9), pp. 133–59, repr. in F. Carter’s strange Dubrovnik (Ragusa): a Classic City-state (London, 1972), pp. 214–92, much of the rest of which is an unattributed reprint of L. Villari, The Republic of Ragusa (London, 1904).

  52. B. Krekić, Dubrovnik (Raguse) et le Levant au Moyen ge (Paris, 1961).

  53. B. Krekić, ‘Four Florentine commercial companies in Dubrovnik (Ragusa) in the first half of the fourteenth century’, in The Medieval City, ed. D. Herlihy, H. Miskimin and A. Udovitch (New Haven, CT, 1977), pp. 25–41; D. Abulafia, ‘Grain traffic out of the Apulian ports on behalf of Lorenzo de’ Medici, 1486–7’, Karissime Gotifride: Historical Essays Presented to Professor Godfrey Wettinger on his Seventieth Birthday, ed. P. Xuereb (Malta, 1999), pp. 25–36, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay ix; M. Spremić, Dubrovnik i Aragonci (1442–1495) (Belgrade, 1971), p. 210.