The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  54. Filip de Diversis, Opis slavnogo grada Dubrovnika, ed. Z. Janeković-Römer (Zagreb, 2004), p. 156; B. Krekić, Dubrovnik in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries: a City between East and West (Norman, OK, 1972), p. 35.

  55. Spremić, Dubrovnik i Aragonci, pp. 207–11 (Italian summary).

  56. B. Cotrugli, Il libro dell’arte di mercatura, ed. U. Tucci (Venice, 1990); B. Kotruljević, Knjiga o umijeću trgovanja (Zagreb, 2005); also, on winds, waves and navigation: B. Kotruljević, De Navigatione – O plovidbi, ed. D. Salopek (Zagreb, 2005).

  57. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 88–90.

  58. Ibid., pp. 93, 95; N. Biegman, The Turco-Ragusan Relationship according to the firmāns of Murād III (1575–1595) extant in the State Archives of Dubrovnik (The Hague and Paris, 1967).

  2. Transformations in the West, 1391–1500

  1. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 196–7.

  2. J. Heers, Gênes au XVe siècle: civilisation méditerranéenne, grand capitalisme, et capitalisme populaire (Paris, 1971).

  3. E. Ashtor, ‘Levantine sugar industry in the late Middle Ages: a case of technological decline’, The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900, ed. A. L. Udovitch (Princeton, NJ, 1981), pp. 91–132.

  4. These include the Wallace Collection (London), the Hispanic Society of America (New York) and the Israel Museum (Jerusalem).

  5. D. Abulafia, ‘Sugar in Spain’, European Review, vol. 16 (2008), pp 191–210; M. Ouerfelli, Le sucre: production, commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée médiévale (Leiden, 2007).

  6. A. Fábregas Garcia, Producción y comercio de azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino de Granada (Granada, 2000); J. Heers, ‘Le royaume de Grenade et la politique marchande de Gênes en Occident (XVe siècle)’, Le Moyen ge, vol. 63 (1957), p. 109, repr. in J. Heers, Société et économie à Gênes (XIVe-XVe siècles) (London, 1979), essay vii; F. Melis, ‘Málaga nel sistema economico del XIV e XV secolo’, Economia e Storia, vol. 3 (1956), pp. 19–59, 139–63, repr. in F. Melis, Mercaderes italianos en España (investigaciones sobre su correspondencia y su contabilidad) (Seville, 1976), pp. 3–65; R. Salicrú i Lluch, ‘The Catalano-Aragonese commercial presence in the sultanate of Granada during the reign of Alfonso the Magnanimous’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 27 (2001), pp. 289–312.

  7. P. Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: a Life (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 29–58.

  8. Ibid., pp. 182–93.

  9. B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), especially pp. 399–422.

  10. Luis Vaz de Camões, The Lusiads, trans. L. White (Oxford, 1997), canto 4:49, p. 86.

  11. F. Themudo Barata, Navegação, comércio e relações políticas: os portugueses no Mediterrâneo Ocidental (1385–1466) (Lisbon, 1998); J. Heers, ‘L’expansion maritime portugaise à la fin du Moyen-ge: la Méditerranée’, Actas do III Colóquio internacional de estudios luso-brasileiros, vol. 2 (Lisbon, 1960), pp. 138–47, repr. in Heers, Société et économie, essay iii.

  12. R. Salicrú i Lluch, El tràfic de mercaderies a Barcelona segons els comptes de la Lleuda de Mediona (febrer de 1434) (Anuario de estudios medievales, annex no. 30, Barcelona, 1995).

  13. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Ferrante I of Naples (1458–94)’, in T. Dean and C. Wickham (eds.), City and Countryside in Late Medieval and Renaissance Italy: Essays Presented to Philip Jones (London, 1990), pp. 135, 140, repr. in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993).

  14. A. Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping in Southampton 1270–1600 (Southampton, 1951), pp. 173–7.

  15. K. Reyerson, Jacques Coeur: Entrepreneur and King’s Bursar (New York, 2005), pp. 3, 90–91; J. Heers, Jacques Cœur 1400–1456 (Paris, 1997), taking a different view from M. Mollat, Jacques Cœur ou l’esprit de l’entreprise au XVe siècle (Paris, 1988) and C. Poulain, Jacques Cœur ou les rêves concrétisés (Paris, 1982).

  16. Cited by Reyerson, Jacques Coeur, p. 87.

  17. Ibid., pp. 90, 92, 162; Mollat, Jacques Cœur, pp. 168–80.

  18. D. Lamelas, The Sale of Gibraltar in 1474 to the New Christians of Cordova, ed. S. Benady (Gibraltar and Grendon, Northants, 1992); M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 48–53.

  19. P. Wolff, ‘The 1391 pogrom in Spain: social crisis or not?’, Past & Present, no. 50 (1971), pp. 4–18.

  20. C. Carrère, Barcelone: centre économique à l’époque des difficultés, 1380–1462, 2 vols. (Paris and The Hague, 1967); C. Batlle, Barcelona a mediados del siglo XV: historia de una crisis urbana (Barcelona, 1976).

  21. J. M. Quadrado, Forenses y Ciudadanos (Biblioteca Balear, vol. 1, Palma de Mallorca, 1986, repr. of 2nd edn, Palma, 1895); plague: M. Barceló Crespi, Ciutat de Mallorca en el Trànsit a la Modernitat (Palma de Mallorca, 1988).

  22. R. Piña Homs, El Consolat de Mar: Mallorca 1326–1800 (Palma de Mallorca, 1985); R. Smith, The Spanish Guild Merchant: a History of the Consulado, 1250–1700 (Durham, NC, 1972), pp. 3–33.

  23. Classic negative views in: J. Elliott, Imperial Spain 1469–1714 (London, 1963), pp. 24, 30–31; P. Vilar, ‘Le declin catalan au bas Moyen ge’, Estudios de Historia Moderna, vol. 6 (1956–9), pp. 1–68; J. Vicens Vives, An Economic History of Spain (Princeton, NJ, 1969), with relevant sections republished in R. Highfield (ed.), Spain in the Fifteenth Century 1369–1516 (London, 1972), pp. 31–57, 248–75.

  24. A. P. Usher, The Early History of Deposit Banking in Mediterranean Europe (Cambridge, MA, 1943).

  25. D. Coulon, Barcelone et le grand commerce d’Orient au Moyen ge: un siècle de relations avec l’Égypte et la Syrie-Palestine, ca. 1330–ca. 1430 (Madrid and Barcelona, 2004).

  26. M. del Treppo, I Mercanti Catalani e l’Espansione della Corona d’Aragona nel Secolo XV (Naples, 1972), figure facing p. 16; D. Pifarré Torres, El comerç internacional de Barcelona i el mar del Nord (Bruges) al final del segle XIV (Barcelona and Montserrat, 2002).

  27. There were 154 voyages from Barcelona to Rhodes between 1390 and 1493: del Treppo, Mercanti Catalani, p. 59.

  28. Del Treppo, Mercanti Catalani, pp. 211, 213, 231–44.

  29. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Ferrante’, pp. 142–3.

  30. D. Abulafia, ‘L’economia mercantile nel Mediterraneo occidentale (1390ca.–1460ca.): commercio locale e a lunga distanza nell’età di Alfonso il Magnanimo’, Schola Salernitana. Dipartimento di Latinità e Medioevo, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Annali, vol. 2 (1997), pp. 28–30, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay viii; M. Zucchitello, El comerç maritime de Tossa a través del port barcelonì (1357–1553) (Quaderns d’estudis tossencs, Tossa de Mar, 1982).

  31. H. Winter, Die katalanische Nao von 1450 nach dem Modell im Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik in Rotterdam (Burg bez. Magdeburg, 1956); Het Matarò-Model: een bijzondere Aanwist (Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rotterdam, 1982).

  32. Salicrú, Tràfic de mercaderies.

  33. M. Peláez, Catalunya després de le Guerra Civil del segle XV (Barcelona, 1981), p. 140; cf. del Treppo, Mercanti catalani, pp. 586–7.

  34. Peláez, Catalunya, pp. 145, 153–9.

  35. P. Macaire, Majorque et le commerce international (1400–1450 environ) (Lille, 1986), pp. 81–91, 411; O. Vaquer Bennasar, El comerç marítim de Mallorca, 1448–1531 (Palma de Mallorca, 2001).

  36. Elliott, Imperial Spain, p. 24; ‘gyroscope’ cited from E. Hamilton, Money, Prices and Wages in Valencia, Aragon and Navarre 1351–1500 (Cambridge, MA, 1936), pp. 55–9.

  37. S. Jados (ed. and trans.), Consulate of the Sea and Related Documents (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1975), pp. 3–18; Smith, Spanish Guild Merchant, pp. 20–25.

  38. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, p. 38; also pp. 35–8, 54–7, 204–8.

  39. Ibid., pp. 56–7; O. R. Constable, ‘The problem of jettison in medieval M
editerranean maritime law’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 20 (1994), pp. 207–20.

  40. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, pp. 65, 68–9.

  41. Ibid., pp. 135–7; on ceramics: Valenza-Napoli: rotte mediterranee della ceramica/València-Nàpols; les rutes mediterrànies de la ceramica (Valencia, 1997).

  42. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, p. 79.

  43. M. Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, ‘Els italians a terres catalanes (segles XII–XV)’, Anuario de Estudios Medievales, vol. 19 (1980), pp. 393–467.

  44. J. Guiral-Hadziiossif, Valence, port méditerranéen au XVe siècle (1410–1525) (Publications de la Sorbonne, Paris, 1986), pp. 281–6; D. Igual Luis, Valencia y Italia en el siglo XV: rutas, mercados y hombres de negocios en el espacio económico del Mediterráneo occidental (Bancaixa Fundació Caixa Castelló, Castellón, 1998).

  45. P. Iradiel, ‘Valencia y la expansión económica de la Corona de Aragón’, in D. Abulafia and B. Garí (eds.), En las costas del Mediterráneo occidental: las ciudades de la Peninsula Ibérica y del reino de Mallorca y el comercio mediterráneo en la Edad Media (Barcelona, 1997), pp. 155–69; E. Cruselles, Los mercaderes de Valencia en la Edad Media, 1380–1450 (Lleidà, 2001); E. Cruselles, Los comerciantes valencianos del siglo XV y sus libros de cuentas (Castelló de la Plana, 2007).

  46. See the studies by P. Mainoni, V. Mora, C. Verlinden collected in A. Furió (ed.), València, mercat medieval (Valencia, 1985), pp. 83–156, 159–73, 267–75.

  47. E.g. Gentino Abulafia: G. Romestan, ‘Els mercaders llenguadocians en el regne de València durant la primera meitat del segle XIV’, in Furió, València, p. 217.

  48. Salicrú, ‘Catalano-Aragonese commercial presence’, pp. 289–312.

  49. E. Belenguer Cebrià, València en la crisi del segle XV (Barcelona, 1976).

  50. S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992); C. Zedda, Cagliari: un porto commerciale nel Mediterraneo del Quattrocento (Naples, 2001).

  51. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), p. 281.

  52. Wolff, ‘1391 pogrom’, pp. 4–18.

  53. H. Maccoby, Judaism on Trial: Jewish-Christian Disputations in the Middle Ages (Rutherford, NJ, 1982), pp. 168–215.

  54. A. Y. d’Abrera, The Tribunal of Zaragoza and Crypto-Judaism, 1484–1515 (Turnhout, 2008).

  55. R. Conde y Delgado de Molina, La Expulsión de los Judíos de la Corona de Aragón: documentos para su estudio (Saragossa, 1991), doc. §1, pp. 41–4.

  56. Samuel Usque, Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel (Consolaçam as Tribulaçoens de Israel), ed. M. Cohen (Philadelphia, PA, 1964); Joseph Hacohen and the Anonymous Corrector, The Vale of Tears (Emek Habacha), ed. H. May (The Hague, 1971).

  57. G. N. Zazzu, Sepharad addio – 1492: I profughi ebrei della Spagna al ‘ghetto’ di Genova (Genoa, 1991).

  58. N. Zeldes, ‘Sefardi and Sicilian exiles in the Kingdom of Naples: settlement, community formation and crisis’, Hispania Judaica Bulletin, vol. 6 (5769/2008), pp. 237–66; D. Abulafia, ‘Aragonese kings of Naples and the Jews’, in B. Garvin and B. Cooperman (eds.), The Jews of Italy: Memory and Identity (Bethesda, MD, 2000), pp. 82–106.

  59. D. Abulafia, ‘Insediamenti, diaspora e tradizione ebraica: gli Ebrei del Regno di Napoli da Ferdinando il Cattolico a Carlo V’, Convegno internazionale Carlo V, Napoli e il Mediterraneo = Archivio storico per le province napoletane, vol. 119 (2001), pp. 171–200.

  60. Cited in M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), p. 48; Maranes signifies ‘Marranos’, a term more often used for conversos.

  61. A. David, To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in Sixteenth-century Eretz-Israel (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1999).

  62. T. Glick, Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia (Cambridge, MA, 1970).

  63. L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain 1250 to 1500 (Chicago, 1990).

  64. M. Meyerson, The Muslims of Valencia in the Age of Fernando and Isabel: between Coexistence and Crusade (Berkeley, CA, 1991); L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago, IL, 2005).

  65. J.-E. Ruiz-Domènec, El Gran Capitán: retrato de una época (Barcelona, 2002); C. J. Hernando Sánchez, El Reino de Nápoles en el imperio de Carlos V: la consolidación de la conquista (Madrid, 2001); D. Abulafia, ‘Ferdinand the Catholic and the kingdom of Naples’, in Italy and the European Powers: the Impact of War, 1503–1530, ed. Christine Shaw (Leiden, 2006), pp. 129–58; F. Baumgartner, Louis XII (Stroud, 1994).

  66. J. M. Doussinague, La política internacional de Fernando el Católico (Madrid, 1944), pp. 91–106.

  67. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, CT, 2008); M. A. Ladero Quesada, El primer oro de América: los comienzos de la Casa de la Contratación de las Yndias, 1503–1511 (Madrid, 2002).

  68. A. Hess, The Forgotten Frontier: a History of the Sixteenth-century Ibero-African Frontier (Chicago, IL, 1978), pp. 37–42; Doussinague, Política internacional, pp. 194–209, 212–28, 346–52; R. Gutiérrez Cruz, Los presidios españoles del Norte de África en tiempo de los Reyes Católicos (Melilla, 1998).

  69. R. Ríos Lloret, Germana de Foix, una mujer, una reina, una corte (Valencia, 2003).

  70. B. Aram, Juana the Mad: Sovereignty and Dynasty in Renaissance Europe (Baltimore, MD, 2005).

  71. T. Dandelet and J. Marino (eds.), Spain in Italy: Politics, Society, and Religion, 1500–1700 (Leiden, 2007); T. Dandelet, Spanish Rome, 1500–1700 (New Haven, CT, 2001).

  3. Holy Leagues and Unholy Alliances, 1500–1550

  1. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, CT, 2008), pp. 33–44, 82–6.

  2. D. Blumenthal, Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-century Valencia (Ithaca, NY, 2009).

  3. B. Pullan (ed.), Crisis and Change in the Venetian Economy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1968).

  4. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, p. 880 dates the phenomenon too late.

  5. J. Heers, The Barbary Corsairs: Warfare in the Mediterranean, 1480–1580 (London, 2003); G. Fisher, Barbary Legend: Trade and Piracy in North Africa 1415–1830 (Oxford, 1957); also J. Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algiers under the Turks, 1500 to 1830 (New York, 1979).

  6. P. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany, NY, 1994), pp. 123–41.

  7. Lively accounts in R. Crowley, Empires of the Sea: the Final Battle for the Mediterranean 1521–1580 (London, 2008), pp. 11–27; and B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), pp. 261–5.

  8. A. Hess, The Forgotten Frontier: a History of the Sixteenth-century Ibero-African Frontier (Chicago, IL, 1978), pp. 21, 42, 75–6.

  9. Ö. Kumrular, El Duelo entre Carlos V y Solimán el Magnífico (1520–1535) (Istanbul, 2005), p. 126.

  10. M. Özen, Pirî Reis and his Charts (2nd edn, Istanbul, 2006), pp. 4, 8–9.

  11. Fisher, Barbary Legend, p. 42; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 61; Özen, Pirî Reis, p. 4; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, p. 156.

  12. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 63; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, pp. 160–63; Hess, Forgotten Frontier, pp. 63–4.

  13. R. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 (Basingstoke, 2003); Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 34.

  14. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 64–5.

  15. Kumrular, El Duelo, p. 119; also Ö. Kumrular, Las Relaciones entre el Imperio Otomano y la Monarquía Católica entre los Años 1520–1535 y el Papel de los Estados Satellites (Istanbul, 2003).

  16. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 68.

  17. Ibid., pp. 70–71.

  18. Kumrular, El Duelo, p. 119.

  19. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 71.

 
20. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 63.

  21. Wolf, Barbary Coast, p. 20 (1535).

  22. P. Lingua, Andrea Doria: Principe e Pirata nell’Italia del ’500 (Genoa, 2006).

  23. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 49; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 69.

  24. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 55; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, p. 288.

  25. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 69.

  26. Lingua, Andrea Doria, pp. 94–101.

  27. Wolf, Barbary Coast, p. 20.

  28. D. Abulafia, ‘La politica italiana della monarchia francese da Carlo VIII a Francesco I’, in El reino de Nápoles y la monarquía de España: entre agregación y conquista, ed. G. Galasso and C. Hernando Sánchez (Madrid, 2004).

  29. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 73–4.

  30. R. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: the Reign of Francis I (Cambridge, 1994), p. 296; J. Luis Castellano, ‘Estudio preliminar’, in J. Sánchez Montes, Franceses, Protestantes, Turcos: los Españoles ante la política internacional de Carlos V (2nd edn, Granada, 1995), pp. ix–xlvi.

  31. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 73.

  32. Hess, Forgotten Frontier, p. 73; Sánchez Montes, Franceses, Protestantes, Turcos, p. 52.

  33. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, pp. 296, 299, 329.

  34. Ibid., p. 489; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 83–90; Hess, Forgotten Frontier, p. 75.

  35. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 89–121.

  36. Ibid., pp. 131–41.

  37. G. Hanlon, The Twilight of a Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats and European Conflicts, 1560–1800 (London, 1998), pp. 29–30; D. Goodman, Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665: Reconstruction and Defeat (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 13, 132.