The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  38. J. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century (2nd edn, London, 2003), pp. 245–7.

  39. N. Capponi, Victory of the West: the Story of the Battle of Lepanto (London, 2006), pp. 179–81; Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 209–34; H. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross: the Battle of Lepanto 1571 (London, 2003), p. 73 (plan of galley).

  40. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 183–4.

  41. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 78–9, 211–20; J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 85.

  42. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 125–6.

  43. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 198–9.

  44. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters, pp. 42–3 (renegades), 115–29 (bagni).

  45. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 237–9.

  4. Akdeniz – the Battle for the White Sea, 1550–1571

  1. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, pp. 919–20.

  2. J. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century (2nd edn, London, 2003), p. 143.

  3. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, pp. 973–87.

  4. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 137–47.

  5. E. Bradford, The Great Siege: Malta 1565 (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1964), p. 14.

  6. A. Cassola, ‘The Great Siege of Malta (1565) and the Istanbul State Archives’, in A. Cassola, I. Bostan and T. Scheben, The 1565 Ottoman /Malta Campaign Register (Malta, 1998), p. 19.

  7. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, pp. 1014–17.

  8. R. Crowley, Empires of the Sea: the Final Battle for the Mediterranean 1521–1580 (London, 2008), p. 114.

  9. F. Balbi di Correggio, The Siege of Malta 1565, trans. E. Bradford (London, 1965), pp. 51–3.

  10. Ibid., pp. 55, 61–4.

  11. Ibid., p. 91.

  12. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1018; Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 155–6, 165–6.

  13. Balbi, Siege of Malta, pp. 145–7, 149–50; Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 176–7.

  14. Balbi, Siege of Malta, p. 182.

  15. Ibid., p. 187.

  16. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1020.

  17. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 58.

  18. R. Cavaliero, The Last of the Crusaders: the Knights of St John and Malta in the Eighteenth Century (2nd edn, London, 2009), p. 23.

  19. J. Abela, ‘Port Activities in Sixteenth-century Malta’ (MA thesis, University of Malta), pp. 151–2, 155.

  20. Ibid., pp. 161, 163.

  21. G. Wettinger, Slavery in the Islands of Malta and Gozo (Malta, 2002).

  22. Abela, ‘Port Activities’, pp. 104, 114, 122, 139–42.

  23. P. Earle, ‘The commercial development of Ancona, 1479–1551’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., vol. 22 (1969), pp. 28–44.

  24. E. Ashtor, ‘Il commercio levantino di Ancona nel basso medioevo’, Rivista storica italiana, vol. 88 (1976), pp. 213–53.

  25. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), p. 162.

  26. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), p. 127.

  27. Earle, ‘Commercial development of Ancona’, pp. 35–7; M. Aymard, Venise, Raguse et le commerce du blé pendant la second moitié du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1966).

  28. Earle, ‘Commercial development of Ancona’, p. 40.

  29. V. Kostić, Dubrovnik i Engleska 1300–1650 (Belgrade, 1975).

  30. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 163–4; F. Carter, ‘The commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic, 1500–1700’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., vol. 24 (1971), p. 390.

  31. V. Miović, The Jewish Ghetto in the Dubrovnik Republic (1546–1808) (Zagreb and Dubrovnik, 2005).

  32. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 252–60, 271–84.

  33. Carter, ‘Commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic’, pp. 369–94; repr. in his unsatisfactory Dubrovnik (Ragusa): a Classic City-state (London, 1972), pp. 349–404; Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 160.

  34. Carter, ‘Commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic’, pp. 386–7.

  35. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 270.

  36. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 284–90.

  37. Ibid., p. 285.

  38. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 172.

  39. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 286–7; A. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice 1580–1615 (London, 1967), pp. 3–15.

  40. Tabak, Waning of the Mediterranean, pp. 173–85.

  41. E. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge, MA, 1934).

  42. J. Amelang, Honored Citizens of Barcelona: Patrician Culture and Class Relations, 1490–1714 (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 13–14; A. García Espuche, Un siglo decisivo: Barcelona y Cataluña 1550–1640 (Madrid, 1998), generally, and pp. 62–8 for French settlers.

  43. A. Musi, I mercanti genovesi nel Regno di Napoli (Naples, 1996); G. Brancaccio, ‘Nazione genovese’: consoli e colonia nella Napoli moderna (Naples, 2001), pp. 43–74.

  44. R. Carande, Carlos V y sus banqueros, 3 vols. (4th edn, Barcelona, 1990); R. Canosa, Banchieri genovesi e sovrani spagnoli tra Cinquecento e Seicento (Rome, 1998); Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 500–504.

  45. C. Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi (Philadelphia, PA, 1948), pp. 21–49.

  46. M. Lazar (ed.), The Ladino Bible of Ferrara (Culver City, CA, 1992); Roth, Doña Gracia, pp. 73–4.

  47. Miović, Jewish Ghetto, p. 27.

  48. Roth, Doña Gracia, pp. 138–46, 150–51.

  49. Ibid., pp. 154–8.

  50. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire 1492–1640 (Oxford and New York, 2007).

  51. C. Roth, The House of Nasi: the Duke of Naxos (Philadelphia, PA, 1948), pp. 39–40.

  52. Ibid., pp. 46–7.

  53. Ibid., pp. 75–137.

  54. J. ha-Cohen, The Vale of Tears, cited ibid., p. 137.

  55. Roth, Duke of Naxos, p. 128.

  56. Under the leadership of Haim Abulafia: J. Barnai, The Jews of Palestine in the Eighteenth Century under the Patronage of the Committee of Officials for Palestine (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1992), pp. 152–3.

  57. Roth, Duke of Naxos, pp. 62–74.

  58. Ibid., pp. 138–42; N. Capponi, Victory of the West: the Story of the Battle of Lepanto (London, 2006), p. 127.

  59. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 119–23.

  60. Ibid., pp. 121, 124–5.

  61. Ibid., pp. 128–30.

  62. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1105.

  63. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 137; A. Gazioğlu, The Turks in Cyprus: a Province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878) (London and Nicosia, 1990), pp. 28–35.

  64. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 150–54; Gazioğlu, Turks in Cyprus, pp. 36–48.

  65. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 160–61.

  66. Ibid., p. 170.

  67. Ibid., pp. 229–31.

  68. H. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross: the Battle of Lepanto 1571 (London, 2003), p. 208; Gazioğlu, Turks in Cyprus, pp. 61–6.

  69. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 233–6.

  70. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, p. 252.

  71. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 263–4; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 300–308.

  72. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 259–60; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 252, 260 (plan of deployment and opening stages).

  73. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 253, 255, 257.

  74. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 272.

  75. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 158–60.

  76. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 279.

  77. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 256.

  78. Ibid., pp. 268�
��71; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, p. 263.

  79. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 284–5.

  80. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 279.

  81. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 319–21; Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 289–91.

  82. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, plates 6a, 6b, 7.

  83. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 247–8.

  84. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1103.

  85. Ibid., pp. 1088–9.

  5. Interlopers in the Mediterranean, 1571–1650

  1. G. Hanlon, The Twilight of a Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats and European Conflicts, 1560–1800 (London, 1998), pp. 26–7.

  2. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 259.

  3. B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), pp. 399–422.

  4. G. Botero, The Reason of State, trans. D. and P. Waley (London, 1956), p. 12; D. Goodman, Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665: Reconstruction and Defeat (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 9–10.

  5. C. W. Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-century Adriatic (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p. 8; A. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice 1580–1615 (London, 1967), pp. 3–15.

  6. E. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester, 1959), and Bandits (London, 1969); cf. T. Judt, Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century (London, 2008); Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 10–11.

  7. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 51–2, 56–62, 67–8, 72–4.

  8. Ibid., p. 70, n. 43 (1558).

  9. Venetian report cited in ibid., p. 83.

  10. Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj, p. 2; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 3.

  11. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 6.

  12. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, p. 8; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 8.

  13. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 10.

  14. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 63–4; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 10.

  15. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 103–4; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 8.

  16. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 202–3.

  17. Ibid., pp. 210, n. 109, 211–12.

  18. E. Dursteler, Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Baltimore, MD, 2006), p. 24.

  19. B. Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550–1670 (Oxford, 1983), especially pp. 201–312; R. Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice (New York, 1987).

  20. D. Geanakoplos, Byzantine East and Latin West: Two Worlds of Christendom in Middle Ages and Renaissance, Studies in Ecclesiastical and Cultural History (Oxford, 1966).

  21. E.g. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 56; cf. R. Rapp, ‘The unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony: international trade rivalry and the commercial revolution’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 35 (1975), pp. 499–525.

  22. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 309–10.

  23. M. Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions: the Mediterranean in the seventeenth century’, Past and Present, no. 174 (2002), pp. 40–72.

  24. J. Mather, Pashas: Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World (New Haven, CT, 2009), pp. 28–32; M. Fusaro, Uva passa: una guerra commerciale tra Venezia e l’Inghilterra (1540–1640) (Venice, 1996), pp. 23–4.

  25. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 59–60.

  26. T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (Manchester, 1959), pp. 92–312.

  27. Fusaro, Uva passa, p. 24.

  28. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 60, 72.

  29. Rapp, ‘Unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony’, pp. 509–12.

  30. Fusaro, Uva passa, pp. 25–6, 48–55; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 61.

  31. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 74–5.

  32. Ibid., pp. 77–8; C. Lloyd, English Corsairs on the Barbary Coast (London, 1981), pp. 48–53; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), pp. 19–25, 30–42.

  33. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 63–4.

  34. Ibid., pp. 64–5, 70–71, 74, 85, 138–43.

  35. Ibid., p. 82.

  36. J. Baltharpe, The Straights Voyage or St David’s Poem, ed. J. S. Bromley (Luttrell Society, Oxford, 1959), pp. 35, 45, 58–9, 68–9; N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: a Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (London, 2004), pp. 132–3.

  37. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, p. 486.

  38. M.-C. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, Seamen and Corsairs: the ‘Flemish’ Community in Livorno and Genoa (1615–1635) (Hilversum, 1997), pp. 47–50.

  39. Rapp, ‘Unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony’, pp. 500–502.

  40. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 50–51.

  41. S. Siegmund, The Medici State and the Ghetto of Florence: the Construction of an Early Modern Jewish Community (Stanford, CA, 2006).

  42. F. Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers: the Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven, CT, 2009), p. 74; L. Frattarelli Fischer, ‘La città medicea’, in O. Vaccari et al., Storia illustrata di Livorno (Pisa, 2006), pp. 57–109; more generally: D. Calabi, La città del primo Rinascimento (Bari and Rome, 2001).

  43. F. Braudel and R. Romano, Navires et merchandises à l’entrée du port de Livourne (Ports, Routes, Trafics, vol. 1, Paris, 1951), p. 21; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 41.

  44. Trivellato, Familiarity of Strangers, p. 76; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 40.

  45. Y. Yovel, The Other Within: the Marranos, Split Identity and Emerging Modernity (Princeton, NJ, 2009).

  46. Trivellato, Familiarity of Strangers, pp. 78, 82.

  47. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 45; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 180.

  48. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 46; J. Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), pp. 80–82.

  49. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 47.

  50. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 67, 91–9, 206–13; K. Persson, Grain Markets in Europe 1500–1900: Integration and Deregulation (Cambridge, 1999).

  51. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 65, 67–73, 96; on Aleppo: Mather, Pashas, pp. 17–102.

  52. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 179, 191, 195, 201.

  53. T. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea: Policy and Power in an Early Modern Maritime Republic, 1559–1684 (Baltimore, MD, 2005), pp. 45, 193–4; E. Grendi, La repubblica aristocratica dei genovesi (Bologna, 1987), p. 332.

  54. Grendi, Repubblica aristocratica, pp. 339–43, 356–7.

  55. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea, pp. 34–5, 84–7, 91–6.

  56. Grendi, Repubblica aristocratica, p. 207.

  57. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea, pp. 119–23.

  58. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), pp. 1–29.

  6. Diasporas in Despair, 1560–1700

  1. L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago, IL, 2005), pp. 206–7; M. Carr, Blood and Faith: the Purging of Muslim Spain, 1492–1614 (London, 2009), pp. 109–17.

  2. Texts in Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 382–98.

  3. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 42.

  4. Cited in G. Parker, Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe (London, 2002), p. 33.

  5. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, p. 41; Carr, Blood and Faith, pp. 153–8.

  6. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, pp. 150–51, 217–18, etc.; Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 337–40; Carr, Blood and Faith, pp. 159–79.

  7. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, p. 218 (with emendations).

  8. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, p. 339.


  9. Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 182.

  10. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 295–6, revising H. C. Lea, The Moriscos of Spain: their Conversion and Expulsion (Philadelphia, PA, 1901), p. 296.

  11. J. Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), pp. 79–100.

  12. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 318–19; Casey, Kingdom of Valencia, pp. 228–9, 234; Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 256.

  13. Lea, Moriscos, p. 320; partial text in Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 310–11.

  14. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 322–5, n. 1.

  15. Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 263.

  16. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 326–33 (figures: p. 332, n. 1); Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 314–16.

  17. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, p. 317; Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 286.

  18. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 340–41.

  19. Cited in J. Casey, ‘Moriscos and the depopulation of Valencia’, Past and Present, no. 50 (1971), p. 19.

  20. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 320–31.

  21. M. García Arenal, La diaspora des Andalousiens (Aix-en-Provence, 2003), p. 103.

  22. Ibid., pp. 123, 137, 139.

  23. M. Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions: the Mediterranean in the seventeenth century’, Past and Present, no. 174 (2002), pp. 40–72.

  24. Cited in D. Goffman, Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 (Seattle, WA, 1990), p. 52.

  25. Ibid., pp. 61–4, 74–5.

  26. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 74–9.

  27. Goffman, Izmir, pp. 67, 77.

  28. Ibid., pp. 81–4; Frangakis-Syrett, Commerce of Smyrna, pp. 80–81, 106.

  29. Frangakis-Syrett, Commerce of Smyrna, p. 35.

  30. Passages cited in Goffman, Izmir, p. 137; also J. Mather, Pashas: Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World (New Haven, CT, 2009), pp. 94, 213.

  31. G. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, the Mystical Messiah 1626–1676 (London, 1973), pp. 106–7, 109, n. 17; and the often inaccurate J. Freely, The Lost Messiah: in Search of Sabbatai Sevi (London, 2001), pp. 14–15.

  32. Moses Pinheiro of Smyrna, cited by Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 115.

  33. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 126–7.

  34. Freely, Lost Messiah, pp. 50, 61.

  35. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 358–9; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 76.

  36. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 396–401; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 85.