The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  3. Ibid., pp. 28–37; J. Marlowe, The Making of the Suez Canal (London, 1964), pp. 44–5.

  4. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 1–3.

  5. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 56–7; Lord Kinross, Between Two Seas: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 1968), pp. 20–30.

  6. Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 32–3; R. Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, and Bureaucrats: Austrian Policy towards the Steam Navigation Company of the Austrian Lloyd 1836–1848 (Wiesbaden, 1975), pp. 148–61.

  7. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 131–2; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 98–9.

  8. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 183.

  9. Ibid., pp. 208–11; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 222–5.

  10. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 227, 231.

  11. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 254; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 246.

  12. Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 253.

  13. G. Lo Giudice, L’Austria, Trieste ed il Canale di Suez (2nd edn of Trieste, l’Austria ed il Canale di Suez, Catania, 1979) (Catania, 1981), pp. 163–7, 180–81; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 287; Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 269.

  14. Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, p. 180, table 20; p. 181, graph 7; Board of Trade report cited in Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, p. 260.

  15. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 260; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 287.

  16. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 255–75; Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 262–5; R. Blake, Disraeli (London, 1966), pp. 581–7.

  17. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 255–75, 313–20; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 293–309, 313–14; Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 262–5.

  18. Cited in Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 55: ‘Dämpschiffe warden und können niemals Frachtschiffe seyn’.

  19. Ibid., pp. 26–7, 35, 63.

  20. Ibid., p. 61.

  21. L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 95.

  22. Cited by Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 63.

  23. U. Cova, Commercio e navigazione a Trieste e nella monarchia asburgica da Maria Teresa al 1915 (Civiltà del Risorgimento, vol. 45, Udine, 1992), p. 171, n. 13; Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, pp. 129–32.

  24. Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, pp. 5–7, 13, 36.

  25. Ibid., pp. 184–7, 209–13.

  26. Ibid., pp. 252–9, 273 (battle diagram).

  27. Ibid., pp. 36–8, 129, 151, 178–9, 259; L. Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918 (West Lafayette, IN, 1994), pp. 6–7.

  28. Cited in Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 3; see also Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, p. 221.

  29. Cova, Commercio e navigazione, pp. 10, 28–9, 74–5; Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, pp. 2–3, 12–13.

  30. L. Dubin, The Port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture (Stanford, CA, 1999), pp. 44–5.

  31. Ibid., pp. 3–4, 10–17, 43.

  32. Ibid., pp. 164–73.

  33. Ibid., p. 32; Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 9; Cova, Commercio e navigazione, p. 153.

  34. C. Russell, ‘Italo Svevo’s Trieste’, Italica, vol. 52 (1975), pp. 3–36; A. J. P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918: a History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary (London, 1948), pp. 201–3.

  35. Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, pp. 135, 137, 142, 145–6, tables 8, 9, 10, 14, 16.

  36. Ibid., pp. 205–6, table 29 and graph 13.

  2. The Greek and the unGreek, 1830–1920

  1. J. Black, The British Abroad: the Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century (Stroud, 1992).

  2. R. Jenkins, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1980), pp. 133–9.

  3. Ibid., pp. 313–15, 318–24; C. Wood, Olympian Dreamers: Victorian Classical Painters 1860–1914 (London, 1983), pp. 106–30; J. W. Waterhouse: the Modern Pre-Raphaelite (Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2009).

  4. C. Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism (Chicago, IL, 2009), p. 20.

  5. Ibid., pp. 38–44.

  6. T. Detorakis, History of Crete (Iraklion, 1994), pp. 368–72.

  7. Ibid., pp. 295–6, 320–26, 349 (very biased).

  8. Gere, Knossos, p. 73.

  9. Ibid., pp. 67, 82–5.

  10. A. Gazioğlu, The Turks in Cyprus: a Province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878) (London and Nicosia, 1990), pp. 220, 242–8.

  11. Ibid., pp. 216–17.

  12. Giovanni Mariti (1769), cited ibid., p. 155.

  13. Archduke Louis Salvator of Austria, ibid., pp. 164–5.

  14. Ibid., pp. 225–34.

  15. R. Rhodes James, Gallipoli (2nd edn, London, 2004), p. 4.

  16. A. Nevzat, Nationalism amongst the Turks of Cyprus: the First Wave (Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Humaniora, Oulu, 2005).

  17. M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), p. 6.

  18. Ibid., p. 194.

  19. Ibid., p. 242.

  20. Ibid., p. 253.

  21. L. Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica (Istanbul, 2000), p. 37 (another edition, as Farewell to Salonica: a City at the Crossroads, London, 2007).

  22. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), pp. 90–91; Mazower, Salonica, p. 237.

  23. Mazower, Salonica, p. 234; also Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 92–3.

  24. Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, p. 37.

  25. Mazower, Salonica, pp. 264–5; Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 73–4.

  26. Mazower, Salonica, pp. 266–8; Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 75–81.

  27. Mazower, Salonica, p. 303.

  3. Ottoman Exit, 1900–1918

  1. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), p. 120.

  2. J. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 309, 376–81.

  3. Ibid., pp. 281–93.

  4. Ibid., pp. 319–23.

  5. N. Doumanis, Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean: Remembering Fascism’s Empire (Basingstoke, 1997).

  6. R. Rhodes James, Gallipoli (2nd edn, London, 2004), pp. 9–11; P. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation 1908–1914 (Cambridge, MA, 1971), pp. 357–8; M. Hickey, The First World War, vol. 4: The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 (Botley, Oxon, 2002), pp. 33–4.

  7. Hickey, Mediterranean Front, p. 36.

  8. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, pp. 23, 33–7.

  9. Ibid., pp. 16–17; P. Halpern, A Naval History of World War I (London, 1994), pp. 106–9.

  10. Cited by Rhodes James, Gallipoli, p. 33.

  11. Ibid., p. 38.

  12. Ibid., pp. 40–41; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 112, 118.

  13. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, pp. 61–4; Halpern, Naval History, p. 115.

  14. Halpern, Naval History, p. 113.

  15. J. W. Streets, ‘Gallipoli’, in L. Macdonald (ed.), Anthem for Doomed Youth: Poets of the Great War (London, 2000), p. 45.

  16. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, p. 348; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 106–9.

  17. Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, pp. 287–90.

  18. L. Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918 (West Lafayette, IN, 1994), pp. 318–24.

  19. Ibid., pp. 258–9; Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, p. 365; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 142–3.

  20. Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 275–9, 286; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 148, 381–5; P. Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914–1918 (London, 1987), pp. 107–19, 132–3.

  21. Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 285–6.

  22. Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, pp. 329–30, 337–42; Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 307–8; Halpern, Naval History, p. 393; Halpern, Naval War, p. 344.

  23. Halpern, Naval History, p. 396; Halpern, Naval War, pp. 386–94.

  4. A Tale of Four and a Half Cities, 1900–1950

  1. M. Housepian, Smyrna 1922 (
London, 1972), p. 83.

  2. G. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of Islam’s City of Tolerance (London, 2008), pp. 84–8.

  3. H. Georgelin, La fin de Smyrne: du cosmopolitisme aux nationalismes (Paris, 2005); M.-C. Smyrnelis (ed.), Smyrne: la ville oubliée? Mémoires d’un grand port ottoman, 1830–1930 (Paris, 2006).

  4. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 86–7, 98–9; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 124–5.

  5. H. Nahum, ‘En regardant une photographie: une famille juive de Smyrne en 1900’, in Smyrnelis, Smyrne: la ville oubliée?, p. 103.

  6. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 121, 207–14; E. Frangakis-Syrett, ‘Le développement d’un port méditerranéen d’importance internationale: Smyrne (1700–1914)’, in Smyrnelis, Smyrne: la ville oubliée?, pp. 23, 37, 45–9; and in the same volume, O. Schmitt, ‘Levantins, Européens et jeux d’identité’, pp. 106–19.

  7. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 16–19; Frangakis-Syrett, ‘Développement d’un port’, p. 41.

  8. Georgelin, Fin de Smyrne, pp. 44–50.

  9. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 36–8, 121, 127–8, 155, 178.

  10. Ibid., pp. 128–34; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 63–4, 76.

  11. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 176, 322, 332, 354; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 191–2.

  12. M. Haag, Alexandria Illustrated (2nd edn, Cairo, 2004), pp. 8–20; M. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory (New Haven, CT, 2004), pp. 150–51.

  13. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, p. 17; E. Breccia, Alexandria ad Aegyptum: a Guide to the Ancient and Modern Town and to its Graeco-Roman Museum (Bergamo and Alexandria, 1922); K. Fahmy, ‘Towards a social history of modern Alexandria’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), p. 282.

  14. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, pp. 136–7.

  15. R. Mabro, ‘Alexandria 1860–1960: the cosmopolitan identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 254–7.

  16. J. Mawas and N. Mawas (née Pinto) speaking in M. Awad and S. Hamouda, Voices from Cosmopolitan Alexandria (Alexandria, 2006), p. 41.

  17. A. Aciman, Out of Egypt (London, 1996), p. 4; K. Fahmy, ‘For Cavafy, with love and squalor: some critical notes on the history and historiography of modern Alexandria’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 274–7.

  18. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, pp. 139–50.

  19. L. Durrell, Justine (London, 1957); also his Bitter Lemons of Cyprus (London, 1957).

  20. M. Awad and S. Hamouda (eds.), The Zoghebs: an Alexandrian Saga (Alexandria and Mediterranean Research Center monographs, vol. 2, Alexandria, 2005), p. xxxix.

  21. S. Hamouda, Omar Toussoun Prince of Alexandria (Alexandria and Mediterranean Research Center monographs, vol. 1, Alexandria, 2005), pp. 11, 27, 35.

  22. Cited by M. Allott in E. M. Forster, Alexandria: a History and Guide and Pharos and Pharillon, ed. M. Allott (London, 2004), p. xv.

  23. Cavafy’s ‘The gods abandon Antony’, trans. D. Ricks, ‘Cavafy’s Alexandrianism’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, p. 346; E. Keeley, Cavafy’s Alexandria (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1996), p. 6; Fahmy, ‘For Cavafy’, p. 274; also N. Woodsworth, The Liquid Continent: a Mediterranean Trilogy, vol. 1, Alexandria (London, 2009), p. 175.

  24. Y. Shavit, Tel Aviv: naissance d’une ville (1909–1936) (Paris, 2004), pp. 9, 44–6.

  25. J. Schlör, Tel Aviv: from Dream to City (London, 1999), pp. 43–4; M. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography: Jaffa, Tel Aviv, and the Struggle for Palestine, 1880–1948 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2005), pp. 60, 72.

  26. Schlör, Tel Aviv, p. 211.

  27. Cited in A. LeBor, City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa (London, 2006), p. 30; Shavit, Tel Aviv, p. 31.

  28. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 285, n. 2.

  29. Bare Feet on Golden Sands: the Abulafia Family’s Story (Hebrew) (Tel Aviv, 2006), pp. 18–21.

  30. Shavit, Tel Aviv, pp. 81–4.

  31. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 12–13; LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, pp. 33–4.

  32. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 38–41; Schlör, Tel Aviv, p. 208.

  33. Shavit, Tel Aviv, pp. 90–91.

  34. Ibid., pp. 9, 34.

  35. Ibid., pp. 55–6.

  36. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 88; LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 46–7; Schlör, Tel Aviv, pp. 180, 183–5.

  37. Schlör, Tel Aviv, pp. 191–9.

  38. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 138, fig. 8.

  39. P. Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914–1918 (London, 1987), pp. 295–300; M. Hickey, The First World War, vol. 4: The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 (Botley, Oxon, 2002), pp. 65–9.

  40. M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), pp. 345, 359–60.

  41. Ibid., pp. 402–8.

  42. Ibid., pp. 423–4.

  43. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), p. 97.

  44. C. Ferrara degli Uberti, ‘The “Jewish nation” of Livorno: a port Jewry on the road to emancipation’, in D. Cesarani and G. Romain (eds.), Jews and Port Cities 1590–1990: Commerce, Community and Cosmopolitanism (London, 2006), p. 165; D. LoRomer, Merchants and Reform in Livorno, 1814–1868 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1987), p. 15.

  45. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 2, 125–35; B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1917–1949 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 95–7, 101.

  46. Ecclesiasticus 44:9.

  5. Mare Nostrum – Again,1918–1945

  1. D. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble: the North African and the Mediterranean Campaigns in World War II (London, 2004), pp. xi, 5, 661; S. Ball, The Bitter Sea: the Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean, 1935–1949 (London, 2009), p. xxxiii.

  2. Cited by Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 10–11.

  3. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 48.

  4. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 7, 18–19.

  5. Ibid., pp. 20–23; M. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory (New Haven, CT, 2004), p. 151.

  6. H. Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (London, 1961), p. 279 and n. 2.

  7. T. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry: Malta’s Role in the Allied Victory 1939–1945 (London, 1996), p. 14; C. Boffa, The Second Great Siege: Malta, 1940–1943 (Malta, 1992).

  8. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 12–16, 40–46.

  9. Ibid., pp. 59–60; C. Smith, England’s Last War against France: Fighting Vichy 1940–1942 (London, 2009), p. 142.

  10. Cited in Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 41.

  11. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 63; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 48, 50.

  12. Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 57–94; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 62–9.

  13. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 51; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 358.

  14. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 93–5; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 56–63.

  15. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 68.

  16. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, pp. 27, 40–42, 92, 187–205.

  17. See e.g. Admiral of the Fleet Lord Lewin in Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, pp. xv–xvi.

  18. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 149.

  19. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 17.

  20. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 259–65; Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 133.

  21. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 11.

  22. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 158–76.

  23. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 109, 148–9; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 348–51.

  24. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 360–62; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 170–73; Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 246–7, 424–5.

  25. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 160–61, 167, 178, 186–7; Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 350–51, 361–2, 366, 372–3, 402, 416.

  26. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 281; Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 261.

&n
bsp; 27. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 200–209; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 566.

  28. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 220; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 424, 429.

  29. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 219–33, 239–40; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 430–52.

  30. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 597.

  31. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 272–7, and for Moscow meeting, p. 280.

  6. A Fragmented Mediterranean, 1945–1990

  1. S. Ball, The Bitter Sea: the Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean, 1935–1949 (London, 2009), pp. 303–6.

  2. E. Leggett, The Corfu Incident (2nd edn, London, 1976), pp. 28–100.

  3. Ibid., pp. 113, 128–30.

  4. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 309, 323.

  5. See, e.g., N. Bethell, The Palestine Triangle: the Struggle between the British, the Jews and the Arabs 1935–48 (London, 1979); M. Gilbert, Israel: a History (London, 1998), pp. 153–250; A. Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists and Palestine 1921–1951 (Oxford, 1990: 2nd edn of his Collusion across the Jordan, Oxford, 1988).

  6. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 295, 305–14.

  7. Cited by B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1917–1949 (Cambridge, 1997), p. 87.

  8. A. LeBor, City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa (London, 2006), p. 122.

  9. A. Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London, 2000), pp. 118–19; Gilbert, Israel, pp. 306–11; see also Shlaim, Politics of Partition, p. 172.

  10. Gilbert, Israel, pp. 297–8, 311–12, 317.

  11. Shlaim, Iron Wall, pp. 172–3.

  12. H. Thomas, The Suez Affair (London, 1967); Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 184.

  13. M. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (London, 2002), pp. 60–116.

  14. G. Schachter, The Italian South: Economic Development in Mediterranean Europe (New York, 1965).

  15. H. Frendo, Malta’s Quest for Independence: Reflections on the Course of Maltese History (Malta, 1989); B. Blouet, The Story of Malta (3rd edn, Malta, 1987), pp. 211–22.

  16. L. Durrell, Bitter Lemons of Cyprus (London, 1957), pp. 193–4.

  17. J. Ker-Lindsay, Britain and the Cyprus Crisis 1963–1964 (Peleus: Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns, vol. 27, Mannheim and Möhnesee, 2004), pp. 21, 51–65.